LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT    OF 


•W* 


Class 


*.  MODERN    -* 
ROAD  BUILDING 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


BEING  REPORTS  OF  THE  TRANSACTIONS 
OF  THE 

FIRST  CONGRESS  OF  AMERICAN  ROAD  BUILDERS 
M 

HELD  AT  SEATTLE,  WASHINGTON 
JULY  4,  1909 


E.  L.  POWERS,  SECRETARY,  A.  R.  B. 

GOOD  ROADS  MAGAZINE 
150  NASSAU  ST.,  NEW  YORK 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


INVOCATION 

DELIVERED  BY  THE  RT.  REV.  FREDERIC  W.  KEATOR,  D.D.,  BISHOP  OF 
OLYMPIA,  AT  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  FIRST  CONGRESS  OF  AMERICAN 
ROAD  BUILDERS,  SEATTLE,  JULY  5TH,  1909. 

"O  God,  our  Help  in  ages  past, 
Our  Hope  for  years  to  come." 

We  lift  our  heart  and  mind  to  Thee  in  humble  adoration  and 
grateful  praise. 

We  acknowledge  Thee  the  Giver  of  all  good  gifts,  the  Inspirer 
of  every  good  word  and  work. 

We  thank  Thee  for  all  the  manifold  blessings  bestowed  on  us 
as  a  nation. 

In  all  our  progress  we  would  see  Thy  guiding  hand.  We  pray 
Thee  help  us  to  show  forth  our  gratitude  to  Thee  by  a  humble  walk- 
ing before  Thee  all  our  days,  and  by  a  sincere  obedience  to  Thy 
laws. 

We  ask  Thy  blessing  upon  all  who  are  in  authority  over  us,  and 
especially  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  the  Governor  of 
this  State. 

Help  them  and  us,  remembering  whose  authority  they  bear,  to  do 
Thy  will  and  set  forward  Thy  kingdom. 

Grant  Thy  blessing  to  this  Congress  now  assembled.  Direct 
them  in  all  their  doings  and  further  them  with  Thy  continual  help, 
that  in  all  their  ways  they  may  acknowledge  Thee.  For  Thine  is 
the  Kingdom,  and  the  Power,  and  the  Glory  for  ever.  Amen. 


George  E.  Dickson,  Chairman  of  the  Washington  State  Commis- 
sion, then  presented  the  Washington  Good  Roads  Building  to  the 
University  of  Washington.  It  is  intended  that  this  building  shall 
be  used  by  the  University  as  a  lecture  hall  and  in  the  furthering  of 
highway  engineering,  which  is  a  subject  now  in  which  the  students 
of  the  University  are  trained  under  the  able  direction  of  Professor 
Samuel  C.  Lancaster. 

Mr.  Dickson  made  the  presentation  in  the  following  happy  terms : 

ADDRESS  OF  GEORGE  E.  DICKSON. 

Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen  of  the  First  Congress  of  American 

Road  Builders : 

As  the  official  representative  of  the  Washington  State  Commis- 
sion to  the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposition,  it  gives  me  great 
pleasure  to  welcome  you  to  the  Washington  State  Good  Roads 
Building. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  5 

I  assure  you  it  would  be  especially  gratifying  to  the  Washing- 
ton State  Commission,  and  the  people  of  the  state,  if  this  building 
was  known  as  the  official  home  of  your  organization. 

The  Washington  State  Commission  was  created  by  act  of  the 
Tenth  Legislature  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  general  de- 
velopments, resources,  and  advantages  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
at  the  World's  Fair  of  the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposition,  to  be 
held  in  Seattle,  Washington,  in  1909. 

Seven  of 'the  beautiful  buildings  you  see  on  the  exposition 
grounds  were  constructed  by  this  Commission,  yet  the  Washing- 
ton State  Good  Roads  Building  may  prove  the  most  important  in 
the  development  and  upbuilding  of  the  state. 

The  original  appropriation  of  $2,500.00  set  aside  by  us  for  a  Good 
Roads  Department  did  not  contemplate  the  construction  of  a  build- 
ing, but  only  an  exhibit  of  road  materials  and  road  building. 

Owing  to  the  great  interest  taken  in  the  good  roads  movement 
throughout  the  state,  fostered  and  promoted  by  Mr.  Samuel  Hill, 
President  of  the  Washington  Good  Roads  Association,  and  from 
the  fact  that  the  Washington  State  University  had  established  a 
chair  of  "Good  Roads"  in  that  great  institution  of  learning,  the 
Commission,  believing  the  construction  of  a  building  devoted  to 
good  roads  and  the  installing  of  its  good  roads  exhibit  therein, 
would  be  a  powerful  aid  in  the  promotion  and  education  for  good 
roads,  concluded  to  construct  this  beautiful  building,  known  as  the 
Washington  State  Good  Roads  Building,  at  a  cost  of  $12,000.00. 

This  building  is  a  permanent  building,  built  on  a  substantial 
concrete  foundation,  and  will  be  used  by  the  State  University  as 
the  home  of  its  "Good  Roads  Department." 

During  the  exposition  it  will  house  and  be  the  home  of  the  Wash- 
ington Good  Roads  exhibit,  and  its  auditorium  and  lecture  room 
will  be  used  each  day  for  lectures  and  classes  in  good  roads. 

The  building  is  designed  and  arranged  particularly  for  educating 
the  people  as  to  the  necessity  for  good  roads. 

This  Commission  and  the  people  of  the  state  at  large  are  es- 
pecially pleased  that  the  first  session  of  the  American  Congress  of 
Road  Builders  will  be  held  in  this  building,  the  first  edifice  of  the 
kind  to  be  built  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  and  promoting  the 
building  of  good  roads. 

Gentlemen,  on  behalf  of  the  Washington  State  Commission,  for 
the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposition,  I  take  great  pleasure  in 
dedicating  this  building  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  erected, 
viz.,  "Good  Roads." 

It  used  to  be  said  that  all  roads  lead  to  Rome.  I  trust  that  the 
future  may  show  that  all  "Good  Roads"  emanate  from  the  Wash- 
ington State  Good  Roads  Building. 


6  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Dr.  Thomas  Franklin  Kane,  President  of  the  University  of 
Washington,  in  accepting  the  gift  of  the  State  Commission,  said: 

Mr.  Dickson,  Chairman  of  the  State  Commission  of  the  Alaska- 
Yukon-Pacific  Exposition : 

As  a  citizen  of  the  state,  along  with  every  other  citizen  of  the 
state,  I  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the  work  of  your  Com- 
mission and  the  plans  of  the  Exposition,  whereby  the  state  will 
receive  for  its  appropriation  to  the  Fair  so  large  an  amount  of  prop- 
erty of  permanent  value.  Your  Commission  is  to  be  congratulated 
on  this  signal  service  to  the  state. 

As  representing  the  University,  I  wish  to  accept  at  your  hands, 
for  the  state  and  for  the  University,  this  substantial  and  useful 
building.  It  has  been  planned  by  practical  good  roads  engineers. 
It  is  well  suited  to  its  purpose.  It  is  a  happy  coincidence  that  at 
the  time  of  its  dedication  to  its  permanent  use  it  is  serving  as  the 
meeting  place  for  the  first  Congress  of  American  Road  Builders. 

In  accepting  this  building  for  the  University,  to  you,  Mr.  Dick- 
son,  for  your  Commission,  and  to  you  delegates  assembled  in  this 
Congress,  I  pledge  the  University  to  do  everything  that  can  be 
done  on  our  part  toward  having  this  building  serve  its  intended 
purpose. 

It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  me,  as  a  representative  of  one  of  the  first 
Universities  in  this  country,  if  not  the  first,  to  establish  a  chair 
of  Good  Roads  Engineering,  to  be  present  at  the  first  Congress  of 
American  Road  Builders.  It  is  an  added  cause  of  pleasure  to  have 
this  first  Congress  assemble  on  the  campus  of  the  University.  It  is 
consistent  with  the  policy  of  the  University  to  provide  for  Good  Roads 
Engineering.  As  a  State  University,  it  is  our  purpose  to  make  the 
University  of  the  highest  possible  service  to  the  people  of  the  state. 
The  aim  of  the  University  is  to  help  prepare  young  men  and  women 
for  the  work  that  will  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  state. 

The  movement  which  this  Congress  represents,  and  which  it  is 
to  advance,  is  one  of  the  most  important  movements  of  our  time, 
one  that  will  result  in  as  great  benefit  to  the  state  as  any  that  has 
taken  place  in  years. 

The  importance  of  this  work  in  the  state  cannot  at  this  time  be 
measured.  Commercially,  good  roads  will  enhance  the  value  of 
every  acre  of  agricultural  and  timber  land  in  the  state.  It  will  in- 
crease the  business  of  every  town  in  the  state.  It  will  add  to  the 
value  for  the  producer  of  every  dollar's  worth  produced  in  the  state. 
Good  roads  mean  for  the  farmer  and  for  all  business  dependent 
upon  local  transportation  approximate  uniform  business  the  year 
round — a  whole  year  for  business,  instead  of,  as  at  present,  busi- 
ness for  the  months  in  which  the  roads  are  good.  Good  roads  will 
be  one  of  the  greatest  inducements  possible  toward  bringing  to  our 
state  for  permanent  residence  desirable  classes  of  citizens,  and  our 
state  will  have  the  advantage,  immediate  and  remote,  such  as  Cali- 
fornia now  abundantly  enjoys,  of  travelers  and  visitors  visiting  our 
great  state  and  seeing  its  attractions  to  advantage. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  7 

Socially,  it  will  mean  that  the  children  can  go  to  school,  that 
people  can  go  to  church,  that  the  rural  mail  carrier  can  deliver  mail 
in  every  section  of  the  state  in  every  month  of  the  year.  It  will 
mean  another  approach  of  country  life  to  all  of  the  advantages  of 
city  life,  with  none  of  the  added  disadvantages.  It  will  mean  that 
the  workingman  in  the  factories  of  the  city  may  be  able  to  go  back 
and  forth  from  his  work  to  a  home  in  the  country  with  whole- 
some, healthful  surroundings  for  bringing  up  his  children.  General- 
ly, good  roads  mean  likewise  healthful  exercise  and  enjoyment,  at- 
traction to  the  millionaire,  and  within  reach  of  the  humblest  citizen 
in  the  state  who  can  command  the  use  of  a  vehicle,  or  even  a 
bicycle. 

This  work  will  stand  in  this  country  as  a  monument  of  the 
energy,  the  generosity,  and  the  practical  ability  of  the  men  who 
have  taken  an  active  part  in  these  Good  Roads  Associations.  Your 
work  will  long  be  remembered  in  the  states  and  countries  which 
you  represent,  and  I  trust  that  you  may  have  the  full  enjoyment 
and  satisfaction  that  come  from  having  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
accomplishing  of  work  so  beneficial  for  all  time  to  your  respective 
states. 

ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME. 

Governor  M.  E.  Hay,  of  Washington  State,  whose  rising  was 
received  with  loud  applause,  then  proceeded,  on  behalf  of  the  state 
of  which  he  is  the  head,  to  welcome  the  many  delegates  who  were 
in  attendance.  Nearly  every  state  in  the  Union  was  represented, 
and  the  Governor's  remarks  were  of  a  character  both  hearty  and 
sincere,  and  he  concluded  by  wishing  the  Congress  every  success, 
and  by  expressing  the  hope  that  their  efforts  and  deliberations 
would  be  productive  of  much  good  in  the  improvement  of  the  roads 
of  the  state  and  the  United  States  generally. 

Governor  Hay  said,  in  part: 

The  state  of  Washington  is  indeed  glad  to  welcome  you  who 
represent  an  organization  that  has  for  its  object  a  movement  fully 
as  important  as  the  reclamation  of  the  arid  lands  of  our  country 
and  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources.  I  know  that  your 
meeting  here  will  give  added  impetus  to  the  growing  interest  in 
the  Good  Roads  movement  in  this  state.  The  problem  of  providing 
improved  highways  is  worthy  of  the  most  serious  consideration 
on  the  part  of  every  state  of  our  Union.  Better  transportation 
facilities  in  our  rural  districts  is  of  vital  importance,  and  the  propa- 
ganda of  education  in  the  construction  of  durable  roads  which  you 
are  carrying  on  must  ultimately  prove  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
nation. 

Among  the  nations  of  the  first  rank  the  United  States  is  far 
behind  in  road  building.  Government  statistics  show  that,  whereas 


8  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

it  costs  from  seven  to  eight  cents  to  transport  one  ton  one  mile 
over  the  improved  roads  of  Europe,  the  average  cost  per  ton  per 
mile  over  the  roads  in  this  country  is  twenty-five  cents.  In  this 
respect  the  United  States  ranks  with  Mexico.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  annual  cost  of  transportation  over  the  common  roads  in  this 
country  reaches  the  enormous  sum  of  one  billion  dollars.  If, 
through  proper  construction,  the  cost  of  hauling  over  the  roads  in 
this  country  could  be  reduced  to  an  equality  with  that  in  Europe, 
and  a  saving  of  two-thirds  of  a  billion  dollars  might  be  effected, 
it  is  simple  arithmetic  to  figure  how  much  we  can  afford  to  ex- 
pend in  attaining  this  great  economic  saving.  There  are  many  oth- 
er considerations  besides  the  added  profits  from  labor  accruing 
from  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  transportation  to  urge  in  making  an 
appeal  for  good  roads.  Improved  highways  mean  increased  popu- 
lation, easier  facilities  for  communication,  and  consequently  better 
social  conditions.  They  also  add  to  the  value  of  the  adjacent  land 
and  to  the  profit  on  every  product  marketed  therefrom. 

In  rural  districts,  where  the  population  is  sparse,  which  is  the 
condition  in  many  sections  of  this  state,  the  expense  of  building 
good  roads  is  prohibitive,  unless  assistance  can  be  received  from 
other  sources.  The  rapid  development  that  naturally  follows  the 
improvement  of  transportation  facilities  adds  directly  to  the  tax- 
able wealth  of  the  state,  and  consequently  decreases  the  general 
burden  of  supporting  the  state  government.  Every  step  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  rural  districts  directly  benefits  the  town  to  which 
they  are  tributary,  and  indirectly  the  larger  centers  of  population, 
which  profit  from  the,  increased  commerce  originating  from  the 
farms,  the  lumber  camps,  the  mines,  and  from  the  grazing  districts. 
All  the  communities,  therefore,  which  gain  from  an  increased  de- 
velopment, and  the  state  as  a  whole,  which  profits  indirectly,  are  will- 
ing to  aid  in  the  construction  of  good  roads.  This  willingness  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  state  aid  road  law  now  on  our  statute  books,  and  I  be- 
lieve that  law  is  a  wise  and  beneficial  piece  of  legislation,  one  which 
is  calculated  to  do  much  in  adding  to  the  value  of  farm  lands  and  the 
profits  derived  from  all  industries  such  as  I  have  enumerated,  and 
consequently  to  the  welfare  of  the  entire  state. 

Very  much  of  the  credit  for  the  good  roads  legislation  now  on 
the  statute  books  of  our  state  is  due  Mr.  Samuel  Hill,  and  I  desire 
to  take  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  the  splendid  service  he 
has  rendered  the  people  of  Washington  as  President  of  the  State 
Good  Roads  Association.  The  campaign  of  education  in  road 
building  and  agitation  in  creating  a  lively  interest  in  this  important 
economic  question  carried  on  by  him  has  been  inspired  by  purely 
patriotic  and  philanthropic  motives.  In  this  work,  to  which  he  has 
so  enthusiastically  and  effectively  devoted  himself,  Mr.  Hill  has 
earned  the  right  to  a  prominent  place  among  the  most  useful  citi- 
zens of  the  state  of  Washington. 

The  state  of  Washington,  with  its  great  area,  is  confronted  with 
a  big  problem  in  providing  all  sections  with  improved  highways. 
Our  people  are  bending  their  energies  to  solving  that  problem,  and 
welcome  every  opportunity  to  acquire  reliable  information  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  9 

practical  suggestions  bearing  on  the  question  of  the  economical 
construction  of  country  highways.  The  efforts  of  your  organiza- 
tion are  bearing  fruit  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  you 
will  find  here  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  work  you  are  doing. 

OBJECTS  AND  PURPOSES  OF  THIS  CONGRESS. 

"The  Objects  and  Purposes  of  this  Congress"  was  the  subject  of 
the  address  of  Hon.  C.  H.  Hanford,  of  Seattle. 

ADDRESS  BY  JUDGE  C.  H.  HANFORD. 

The  object  of  this  Congress  is  educational,  practical,  and  stimu- 
lative. A  country's  roads  are  to  it  important  as  a  man's  .veins  and 
arteries  are  to  him ;  each  affords  the  means  of  circulation  neces- 
sary to  life.  All  people  have  a  vague  notion  of  the  importance  of 
public  highways,  but  few  have  that  degree  of  knowledge  necessary 
to  create  a  belief  as  to  the  necessity  or  wisdom  of  providing  and 
maintaining  roads  of  the  quality  essential  to  the  use  thereof  with 
convenience  and  economy.  The  work  of  constructing  and  main- 
taining them  requires  men  of  scientific  attainments,  acting  under 
the  guidance  of  statesmen,  who  act  most  efficiently  under  the 
spur  of  popular  demands.  Those  who  use  the  highways  and  in- 
jure them  most  ascribe  their  deficiencies  to  the  negligence  of  local 
officials,  and  are  not  conscious  of  any  personal  responsibility. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  action  to  challenge  public  attention  and  to 
teach  the  masses  of  the  people  with  respect  to  the  importance  of 
having  good  roads  and  how  they  must  be  made. 

Road  construction  is  a  progressive  science.  Before  the  time 
of  McAdam,  the  roads  of  England  were  very  bad ;  that  is  to  say, 
they  were  unfit  for  the  use  then  required.  Then  improved  methods 
of  construction  were  devised,  and  the  roads  were  greatly  improved, 
and  they  were  good  roads  for  a  time;  but  they  proved  to  be  in- 
capable of  resisting  the  destructive  forces  of  modern  methods  of 
rapid  transit,  so  that  Necessity,  the  mother  of  invention,  has  been 
required  to  bring  forth  new  theories  and  new  materials  for  road 
construction.  I  have  referred  to  England,  for  the  reason  that  I 
am  informed  that  she  leads  all  other  countries  in  the  construction 
of  roads  fit  to  endure  the  wear  of  swift-running  automobiles  and 
heavy  traction  engines  which  are  used  there. 

Knowledge  acquired  by  experimental  processes  is  very  costly. 
Much  time  and  wealth  may  be  saved  by  an  interchange  of  ideas; 
that  is  to  say,  for  the  thinkers  and  successful  experimenters  of  dif- 
ferent localities  to  disseminate  the  knowledge  which  they  have 
acquired  for  the  general  welfare.  With  this  in  view,  the  object  of 
this  Congress,  the  first  of  its  kind  to  be  held  on  the  continent  of 
North  America,  is  to  serve  as  a  medium  for  the  interchange  of  ideas 
and  the  dissemination  of  knowledge.  It  is  the  medium  through 
which  some  of  the  greatest  practical  thinkers  of  our  time  are  to 
speak  to  the  whole  world  on  the  important  subject  of  road  build- 


10  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

ing.  Seattle  has  been  highly  honored  in  being  selected  as  the  city 
in  which  the  first  American  Congress  of  road  builders  shall  be 
held.  The  city  appreciates  the  honor  and  cordially  welcomes  all 
who  have  come,  from  near  and  from  far,  to  participate  in  the  noble 
enterprise  of  enlightening  the  world. 

In  conclusion,  permit  me  to  say  that  credit  for  this  Congress  is 
due  to  one  man,  whose  name  has  already  been  mentioned  with 
commendation — Mr.  Samuel  Hill.  With  patriotic  and  unselfish  zeal 
he  devotes  much  of  his  time  and  is  generous  financially  in  promot- 
ing the  cause  of  good  roads.  He  engages  in  this  work  because  he 
likes  to  do  it,  and  he  likes  to  do  it  because  he  realizes  that  thereby 
he  is  assisting  in  doing  what  is  best  for  his  fellow  men.  Hereafter, 
when  Europeans,  or  our  own  countrymen,  speak  in  derision  of 
Americans  as  worshippers  of  the  Almighty  Dollar,  we  may  justly 
claim  that  there  are  Americans  who  prefer  to  spend  the  money 
which  they  have  to  lighten  the  burdens  and  enhance  the  joys  of  all 
people,  rather  than  to  accumulate  more  wealth,  and  among  men  of 
this  stamp  Samuel  Hill  is  the  leader. 

James  J.  Hill  was  scheduled  on  the  programme  to  give  an  ad- 
dress on  "Primary  Transportation,"  but  was  unavoidably  prevented 
from  coming  to  Seattle.  This  was  a  cause  of  extreme  regret  to  the 
delegates. 


HISTORY  OF  ROAD  BUILDING  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Powers,  of  the  "Good  Roads  Magazine,"  of  New  York 
City,  then  read  a  paper  on  the  "History  of  Road  Building  in  the 
United  States,"  which  is  here  printed  in  full. 

PAPER  BY  MR.  E.  L.  POWERS. 

The  subject  assigned  me  is  one  with  which  all  here  assembled 
are  more  or  less  familiar.  Our  public  roads  are  an  evolution  from 
the  primary  paths  made  by  animals  and  by  men.  Of  the  identity 
of  the  first  beings  who  made  paths  in  the  wilderness  we  are  uncer- 
tain. Whatever  their  character  and  origin,  we  may  be  reasonably 
certain  that  they  had  roads  of  some  sort. 

It  cannot  be  positively  asserted  that  the  mound-building  Indians 
made  roads,  but  that  such  was  the  case  seems  not  unlikely.  Sev- 
eral circumstances  indicate  that  they  had  some  system  of  com- 
munication. The  remains  of  their  works  are  often  found  on  streams 
that  were  not  navigable,  and  groups  of  them  are  found  concentrated 
about  natural  strategic  points,  such  as  mountain  passes,  thus  mak- 
ing natural  the  inference  that  some  avenues  of  overland  travel 
existed. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  H 

The  buffalo  herds  made  broad,  straight  paths  from  point  to  point, 
which  can  yet  be  traced.  These  animals  instinctively  chose  the 
best  routes,  and  in  many  cases  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  im- 
prove upon  them.  The  Indians  used  these  thoroughfares  for  many 
of  their  trails,  and  later  the  white  man,  finding  them  good,  appro- 
priated them  to  his  own  use.  The  first  white  settlers  to  start  with 
had  very  little  to  transport.  Therefore  a  path  to  accommodate  the 
pack  horse  was  sufficient  for  their  needs.  As  population  grew  and 
the  country  became  civilized,  more  commodities  had  to  be  moved, 
and  the  wagon  superseded  the  pack  train.  This  necessitated  wid- 
ening the  former  paths,  and  when  it  was  found  that  the  soft  earth 
road  would  not  sustain  the  wagon  traffic  attention  was  then  given 
to  the  roadbed.  The  first  step  in  this  direction  was  the  construc- 
tion of  the  corduroy  road,  made  by  the  use  of  saplings  and  logs. 
This  was  a  step  forward,  although  it  is  possible  that  some  of  you 
have  ridden  over  such  roads  and  know  by  experience  that  they  do 
not  compare  very  favorably  with  at  least  some  of  our  roads  to-day. 

Road  building  began  at  centers,  and  spread  out  with  the  spread 
of  population.  Probably  the  real  work  of  opening  the  roads  in 
America  began  with  the  bridle  paths  on  the  Atlantic  Slope.  In 
1639  a  measure  was  passed  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  which 
provided  that  two  or  three  men  from  adjacent  towns  get  together 
and  lay  out  proper  roads.  They  were  instructed  to  place  the  roads 
where  they  might  be  most  convenient,  and  those  deputed  to  the 
work  were  to  have  the  power  to  locate  them  wherever  they  chose, 
provided  that  it  did  not  necessitate  pulling  down  a  man's  house  or 
going  through  his  garden  or  orchard.  These  men  seem  to  have 
been  (about)  the  first  highway  commissioners  of  whom  we  have 
record. 

In  1664  the  government  of  the  then  province  of  New  York 
adopted  regulations  for  road  making.  These  are  the  specifications : 

"The  highways  to  be  cleared  as  followeth,  viz.,  the  way  to  be  made  clear  of 
standing  and  lying  trees,  at  least  ten  feet  broad ;  all  stumps  and  shrubs  to  be 
cut  close  by  the  ground.  The  trees  marked  yearly  on  both  sides — sufficient 
bridges  to  be  made  and  kept  over  all  marshy,  swampy  and  difficult  dirty 
places,  and  whatever  else  shall  be  thought  more  necessary  about  the  highways 
aforesaid." 

In  Pennsylvania,  in  1692,  the  townships  were  given  the  control 
of  the  roads,  and  eight  years  later  the  county  roads  were  put  in  the 
hands  of  county  justices  and  King's  highways  in  the  hands  of  the 
governor  and  his  council. 

Previous  to  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  it  can  be  said 
that  almost  nothing  had  been  done  towards  what  we  to-day  under- 
stand by  the  term  road  building.  In  1790  it  is  estimated  that  there 
were  nearly  1,800  miles  of  post  roads  in  the  United  States.  As 
stated,  road  improvement  began  at  the  centers  of  the  settlements 
and  spread  out  as  population  increased.  Philadelphia  was  one  of 
the  principal  centers.  Many  roads  began  there,  and  were  extended 
further  and  further.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  corduroying  the  roads 
the  tendency  was  to  narrow  and  deepen  them — in  fact,  one  his- 


12  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

torian  relates  that  they  were  made  so  deep  that  an  instance  is  given 
of  where,  in  trying  to  get  a  team  out  of  a  mudhole  with  a  chain 
around  the  horse's  neck,  they  pulled  half  the  horse's  head  off. 

The  advent  of  the  stagecoach  and  freight  wagon  brought  about 
another  era  in  road  building.  This  caused  much  friction  between 
the  pack  horse  owners  and  the  stagecoach  and  wagon  men — a  thing 
which  always  has  and  probably  always  will  happen  when  a  radical 
change  is  made  in  methods  of  transportation.  We  see  the  prin- 
ciple illustrated  to-day  in  much  the  same  way  in  the  advent  of  the 
automobile.  The  adoption  of  the  stagecoach  ushered  in  the  mac- 
adamized road,  or,  as  it  was  known  at  that  time,  a  road  made  of 
layers  of  broken  stone.  It  is  true,  however,  that  but  few  such  roads 
were  built  at  the  time.  Most  of  the  old  roads  were  merely  widene'd 
and  graded  by  state  and  county,  but  remained  of  dirt. 

Nearly  all  of  the  macadamized  roads  were  built  by  road  and  turn- 
pike companies.  It  is  claimed  that  the  first  and  most  interesting 
macadamized  road  in  the  United  States  was  the  old  Lancaster 
Turnpike,  which  ran  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster,  Pa.  This 
road  was  built  by  the  Philadelphia  &  Lancaster  Turnpike  Com- 
pany, its  charter  being  granted  April  9,  1792.  The  work  of  build- 
ing began  immediately,  and  was  completed  in  1794,  at  a  cost  of 
$465,000.  The  road  was  built  very  straight,  with  regular  slope 
transversely.  The  macadam  was  carefully  prepared,  and  no  stone 
was  allowed  on  the  road  that  would  not  pass  a  two-inch  ring.  It 
was  first  planned  to  make  the  road  100  feet  wide,  but  this  was  found 
too  expensive. 

The  toll  gate,  or  turnpike,  still  exists  in  many  isolated  sections 
of  .the  country,  but  gradually  they  are  passing.  A  number  of  states 
are  now  arranging  fof  their  complete  extinction. 

In  1750  there  were  three  routes  running  through  Southwestern 
Pennsylvania,  Central  Pennsylvania,  and  Central  New  York. 
These  roads  are  said  to  have  been  wide  enough  for  two  pack  horses 
to  pass.  In  1755  two  roads  were  opened  westward  by  troops  of 
Washington,  Braddock,  and  Forbes.  These  were  long  trails,  wid- 
ened by  pack  horses  of  the  Ohio  Companies'  agents.  Braddock's 
road  was  cut  through  in  1755. 

In  the  year  1799  the  state  of  Virginia  appointed  commissioners 
to  construct  a  road  over  the  Cumberland  Mountains  to  the  open 
country  in  Kentucky.  These  commissioners  were  authorized  to 
call  on  the  local  county  authorities  for  guards  to  protect  the  work- 
men from  the  Indians.  Commissioners  were  appointed  in  1785  to 
open  a  wagon  road  from  the  head  of  James  river  in  Virginia  to 
Lexington. 

Kentucky  became  a  state  in  1792,  and  passed  its  first  road  law 
in  1797,  a  law  very  similar  to  that  of  Virginia,  which  was  in  turn 
an  adaptation  of  the  English  road  law.  Under  its  provisions,  ap- 
plications were  made  to  the  county  court  to  open  a  road  to  the 
County  courthouse  and  to  other  points.  Three  persons,  termed 
"viewers,"  were  appointed  to  examine  the  road  and  report  on  same 
as  to  the  comparative  advantages  and  disadvantages.  For  the 
general  supervision  and  care  of  the  roads,  the  county  divided  them 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  13 

into  precincts,  each  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  miles,  over 
which  an  overseer  or  surveyor  was  appointed.  It  was  the  over- 
seer's duty  to  look  after  repairs.  With  some  modifications,  Ken- 
tucky operated  under  this  law  until  1894.  It  is  stated  that  the  pub- 
lic system  of  Macadam  and  Telford  roads  was  begun  as  early  as 
1810,  although  other  authorities  claim  that  no  macadamized  road 
or  turnpike  had  been  constructed  in  the  state  prior  to  1829. 

From  about  1822  to  1850  Kentucky  gave  liberally  towards  build- 
ing roads,  and  many  miles  of  both  gravel  and  macadam  were  con- 
structed. Some,  like  the  road  between  Lexington  and  Frankfort, 
were  built  directly  by  the  state ;  but  in  the  greater  number  of  cases 
the  state  contribution  was  in  the  form  of  the  purchase  of  shares  in 
turnpike  companies.  By  these  means  the  state  paid  for  road  build- 
ing, between  1822  and  1860,  nine  million  dollars. 

When  by  act  of  Congress  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a  state  in  the  year  1802,  one  of  the  provisions,  to  become  binding 
on  the  United  States  as  soon  as  the  Ohio  convention  should  accept 
it,  was  one  providing  that  one-twentieth  part  of  the  net  proceeds 
of  the  lands  lying  within  the  state  sold  by  Congress  from  and  after 
a  certain  fixed  date  should,  after  deducting  all  expenses  incident 
to  the  same,  be  applied  to  the  laying  out  and  making  of  public 
roads  leading  from  the  navigable  waters  emptying  into  the  Atlantic, 
to  the  Ohio,  to  the  said  state  and  through  same,  such  roads  to  be 
laid  out  under  the  authority  of  Congress  with  the  consent  of  the 
several  states  through  which  the  roads  should  pass.  The  measure 
became  a  law  and  was  accepted  by  the  Ohio  convention  November 
29,  1802. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  matter  of  build- 
ing the  road  from  Cumberland  to  St.  Louis  was  agitated.  The  re- 
sult was  that  by  a  special  act  of  Congress  in  1806  the  President 
was  authorized  to  appoint  a  commission  of  three  to  lay  out  a  road 
four  rods  wide  from  Cumberland,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Potomac 
river,  to  a  point  a  little  below  Wheeling.  This  road  is  known  as 
the  "Cumberland  Road,"  or  the  "6ld  National  Pike."  As  originally 
planned,  the  road  was  to  go  from  Cumberland  to  St.  Louis,  a  dis- 
tance of  1,000  miles.  Only  about  800  miles,  however,  were  com- 
pleted. Thirty  thousand  dollars  were  first  appropriated  for  carry- 
ing on  the  work.  In  the  year  1819  the  appropriation  was  $500,000, 
and  the  last  appropriation  for  the  road  made  by  Congress  was  in 
1838  for  $150,000.  The  total  amount  expended  up  to  that  time  was 
$7,000,000,  $680,000  of  which  was  from  the  Ohio  fund. 

The  Old  National  Pike  was  built  of  macadam,  the  depth  of  metal 
being  18  inches  in  the  center  and  12  inches  at  the  sides.  It  was  a 
toll  road,  and  the  revenues  received  were  applied  to  repair  and 
maintenance.  In  Ohio  the  amount  collected  in  the  year  1839  was 
$62,446.10,  and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  banner  year.  The 
average  cost  of  the  road  between  Cumberland  and  Uniontown  was 
$9,745  per  mile,  while  that  of  the  division  east  of  the  Ohio  river 
was  about  $13,000  per  mile.  This  cost  included  the  heavy  grading 
and  stone  bridges  which  were  built.  The  average  cost  of  the  road 
in  Eastern  Ohio  was  much  less  than  in  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 


14  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

vania,  being  about  $3,400  per  mile,  and  this  included  macadamizing, 
masonry,  bridges,  and  culverts.  Although  the  road  was  projected 
and  partially  surveyed  in  1806,  it  was  not  thrown  open  to  the  public 
until  the  year  1812. 

In  about  1852  the  development  of  the  railroads  took  from  the 
National  Pike  the  bulk  of  travel  and  traffic,  as  well  as  the  mails 
between  the  East  and  West.  Thus  began  the  period  of  decline  of 
the  most  famous  road  in  our  history. 

Many  interesting  debates  took  place  in  Congress  in  relation  to 
the  construction  of  the  National  Pike.  Henry  Clay  was  one  of  the 
most  ardent  advocates  of  the  measure.  An  argument  used  in  one 
of  his  speeches  was  that  when  the  Cumberland  Roads  and  the  State 
Road  from  Baltimore  to  Cumberland  should  be  completed  the 
journey  from  Baltimore  to  Wheeling  would  be  reduced  from  eight 
days  to  three  days. 

In  1804,  1805,  and  1806,  through  the  favor  of  the  National  Con- 
gress, the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  was  organized,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  a  route  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  by 
following  the  Missouri  to  its  source,  and  crossing  to  and  following 
to  tidewater  the  great  river  which  forms  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  state  of  Washington.  Great  credit  is  due  Meriwether  Lewis 
and  Captain  Clark  and  their  company  of  explorers  in  carrying  out 
this  work.  Praise  is  also  due  to  John  C.  Fremont,  the  eminent 
engineer,  who  in  1844  surveyed  a  route  to  these  shores  through 
what  was  then  named  the  South  Pass  of  the  Rockies.  While  not 
road  builders  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  these  determined  men 
made  the  famous  trails  of  history  that  were  primarily  important 
factors  in  the  establishment  of  avenues  of  traffic,  thereby  making 
possible  the  magnificent  development  of  the  Pacific  Slope. 

In  his  book  on  Road  Building  in  the  United  States,  General  Roy 
Stone  says  that  "few  are  aware  that,  while  the  construction  of  the 
Cumberland  Road  was  in  progress,  twelve  national  roads  were  laid 
out  in  the  states  and  territories,  making  what  was  regarded  then 
as  a  complete  system  of  highways,  and  that  more  or  less  work  was 
done  in  opening  and  constructing  these  various  highways." 

The  plank  road  came  into  existence  as  a  rival  of  macadam  con- 
struction in  the  year  1835.  The  first  road  of  this  sort  to  be  built 
in  the  United  States  was  constructed  at  Syracuse  in  1837.  A  large 
number  of  plank  road  companies  were  organized,  and  within  fifteen 
years  from  the  introduction  of  that  method  of  road  construction 
2,106  miles  had  been  constructed  in  the  state  of  New  York.  These 
roads  were  usually  built  single  track  and  of  planks  eight  by  three 
inches,  laid  on  stringers  resting  on  more  or  less  well  laid  founda- 
tions. The  average  cost  in  New  York  was  less  than  $2,000  per 
mile,  and  their  cheapness  made  them  popular.  During  the  period 
of  ch'eap  lumber  plank  roads  were  built  extensively  from  the  larger 
cities.  Some  of  them  remain,  but  the  gradually  increasing  cost  of 
lumber  has  led  to  other  methods  of  construction.  Their  usefulness 
has  survived  in  one  respect,  however.  No  community,  after  once 
having  had  a  good  plank  road,  could  ever  go  back  to  the  muddy 
and  rutty  earth  road  without  strenuous  protest. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  15 

Paved  roadways  appear  to  have  received  attention  in  the  towns 
and  cities  before  very  much  attention  was  given  to  the  subject  of 
country  road  building.  According  to  the  most  authentic  records, 
the  first  pavements  laid  in  the  United  States  were  put  down  almost 
simultaneously  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Boston  in  the  year 
1650.  These  pavements  have  been  referred  to  as  pebbles,  probably 
what  we  would  call  cobblestone  pavements.  The  development  of 
this  branch  of  road  building  has  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  de- 
velopment— due,  of  course,  to  the  great  amount  and  diversified 
nature  of  the  traffic  to  be  accommodated. 

The  modern  awakening  to  the  necessity  for  better  roads,  or,  as 
it  is  more  commonly  called,  the  Good  Roads  Movement,  began  in 
1885,  when  the  bicycle  came  into  general  use.  Bicycles  became 
very  popular,  and  in  consequence  a  large  army  of  new  users  of 
the  highways  was  produced.  These  wheelmen  quickly  saw  the 
necessity  for  better  highways,  not  only  for  themselves,  but  for  all 
other  road  users  as  well.  They  organized  themselves,  and  began 
issuing  literature  calling  attention  of  the  public  to  the  great  loss 
entailed  from  lack  of  better  country  roads.  Statistics  were  pub- 
lished, showing  the  cost  of  bad  roads  to  the  farmer  and  to  all  other 
citizens.  This  literature  was  sent  broadcast,  and  the  newspapers 
were  appealed  to.  The  press — always  a  most  potent  factor  in  the 
molding  of  public  opinion — took  the  matter  up,  and  public  senti- 
ment was  aroused. 

As  a  result  of  the  agitation  the  state  of  New  Jersey  put  into 
practical  operation  a  plan  for  state  aid  in  the  improvement  of  its 
highways.  This  was  the  first  application  of  the  principle,  and  really 
inaugurated  a  new  era  in  road  building.  It  is  true  that  as  early  as 
1819  the  state  of  North  Carolina  gave  aid  in  the  construction  of 
roads  through  a  state  board  of  internal  improvements.  This  plan, 
however,  it  appears,  for  some  reason,  did  not  work  out  satisfacto- 
rily. The  application  of  state  aid  in  New  Jersey  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  the  adoption  of  similar  measures  in  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut.  The  principle  thus  became  well  established.  It  has 
since  been  put  into  operation  by  other  states,  so  that  to-day  up- 
wards of  50  per  cent,  of  them  have  some  co-operated  plan  of  road 
improvement.  State  aid  has  now  become  fully  recognized  as  cor- 
rect in  principle  and  efficient  in  its  application. 

The  Office  of  Public  Roads  was  inaugurated  in  the  year  1893  in 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  purpose  of 
disseminating  information,  testing  materials,  and  giving  instruc- 
tion in  the  art  of  road  building.  Statistics  compiled  and  published 
by  this  Office  in  the  year  1904  show  that  at  that  time  there  were 
2,151,507  miles  of  roads  in  the  United  States.  Of  this  mileage, 
however,  only  153,662  miles  were  of  improved  roads,  or  a  little  more 
than  7  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  total  length  of  all  the  roads 
in  the  country. 

The  task  we  have  before  us  of  improving  the  other  93  per  cent, 
of  the  roads  of  the  country  seems  gigantic.  That  we  are  making 
progress  cannot  be  denied ;  that  we  have  not  made  greater  progress 
is  due  to  many  reasons.  It  must  be  remembered  that  it  was  but  a 


16  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

comparatively  short  time  ago  that  attention  was  first  seriously 
drawn  to  the  necessity  for  road  improvement,  and  that  we  have  but 
recently  placed  the  country  roads  under  properly  organized  super- 
vision. The  great  growth  of  our  population  and  the  consequent 
increased  road  traffic,  brought  about  especially  by  new  methods 
of  locomotion,  has  greatly  raised  the  standard  of  our  requirements 
t  must,  of  necessity,  take  a  long  time  to  effectually  overcome  the 
neglect  and  the  mistakes  of  former  years.  It  is  not  so  easy,  as  road 
builders  know,  to  make  an  old,  badly  constructed  roadway  over  as 
it  is  to  start  and  build  a  new  road  under  modern  practice  Road 
contractors  and  engineers  are  not  trained  in  a  day  to  the  practical 
part  of  the  work,  and  the  men  who  really  know  how  are  far  too 
few  in  number  to  construct  all  the  roads  of  this  country  to  meet 
the  conditions  of  modern  traffic  as  rapidly  as  many  good  people 

In  the  great  state  of  Washington  a  splendid  start  has  been  made 
m  road  building.  No  state  has  shown  greater  enterprise.  No  state 
can  dispute  her  claim  to  foremost  rank  in  the  matter  of  initiative 
I  he  establishment  of  a  Chair  of  Highway  Engineering  is  a  for- 
ward step  and  one  well  worthy  of  imitation  in  every  state  In 
road  improvement,  Washington  has  set  an  example  for  all  this  £reat 
Western  country. 

There  are  two  classes  in  interest  in  the  matter  of  road  building— 
those  who  build  the  roads,  or  are  responsible  for  their  construction 
and  those  who  use  them.    Both  classes  are  represented  here  to-day 
and  it  is  well  that  they  should  be.    No  progress  has  ever  been  made 
without  the  proper  sort  of  co-operation.    There  should  be  a  full  and 
complete  understanding  between  these  classes.    The  automobilists 
to  a  man,  are  good  roads  enthusiasts;   so  should  be  all  other  users 
j    highway.     Every  one  who  travels  a  roadway  should  under- 
stand that  to  make  a  road  suited  to  present-day  conditions  requires 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  materials  and  skill  in  methods  on  the  part 
of  the  road  builder.    The  user  should  not  expect  too  much.    Money 
IS  first  required,  but  money  will  not  build  roads,  unless  the  men 
who  know  how  are  available.    To  build  faster  means  larger  appro- 
priations and  a  greater  number  of  skilled  contractors  and  engineers 
We  must  educate  road  builders;    we  must  train  them,  before  the 
work  can  go  on  at  its  maximum  rate.     The  men  charged  with  the 
work  of  highway   improvement  are   thoroughly  honest,  conscien- 
tious, and  efficient,  and  they  are  giving  the  best  years  of  their  lives 
to  the  public  service.     Upon  them  are  placed  great  responsibilities, 
and  they  should  be  given  much  praise.     Their  work  should  not  be 
hindered  by  those   who  are   too   zealous   to  have  all   the   roads   im- 
proved m  a  single  day.     There  are  many  difficult  problems,  which 
must  be  worked  out,   and  which   require  time  and  experience  to 
solve.     Education,  organization,  and  administration  are  the  great 
iactors  m  carrying  on  the  work  of  road  building:     let  them  all  be 
given  due  attention.    It  may  be  true  that  we  are  on  the  eve  of  great 
developments  in  the  navigation  of  the  air.     With  the  building  of, 
roads  above  the  earth  we  are  not  concerned  at  present.     We  have 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  17 

the  roads  here  on  earth  to-day,  and  we  will  have  them  with  us  to- 
morrow. We  must  rely  upon  them,  and  therefore  we  must  make 
them  good.  We  can  do  this  through  unity  of  action,  through  enter- 
prise, and  through  education  and  organization. 


EARTH,  SAND,  CLAY,  AND  GRAVEL  ROADS. 

"Earth,  Sand,  Clay,  and  Gravel  Roads"  was  the  subject  of  the 
paper  by  Mr.  M.  O.  Eldredge,  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

PAPER  BY  MAURICE  O.  ELDREDGE,  ASSISTANT  IN  ROAD  MANAGEMENT, 
U.  S.  OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC  ROADS. 

Earth  Roads. 

The  cost  of  hauling  over  country  roads  is  largely  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  load  that  can  be  hauled,  the  number  of  trips  that  can 
be  made  in  a  day,  and  the  wear  and  tear  on  teams  and  equipment. 
Steep  grades,  as  well  as  ruts  and  mudholes,  serve  to  decrease  both 
the  speed  and  the  load.  On  the  principle  that  a  chain  is  no  stron- 
ger than  its  weakest  links,  the  maximum  load  that  a  team  can  draw 
is  the  load  that  it  can  draw  up  the  steepest  hill  or  through  the 
deepest  mudhole  on  that  road. 

Wherever  possible  roads  should  be  located  on  straight  lines  be- 
tween terminal  points.  In  hilly  or  mountainous  country,  however, 
the  attempts  to  keep  roads  straight  between  terminals  often  leads 
to  the  serious  error  of  heavy  grades.  Straightness  and  grade  must 
therefore  be  handled  together.  The  best  location  is  one  which  is 
straight  in  general  direction,  is  free  from  steep  grades,  is  located 
on  solid  ground,  and  serves  the  largest  possible  number  of  people. 

Roads  should  be  located  for  the  benefit  of  the  people,  and  not 
the  private  landowner.  If  county  officials  would  apply  to  each 
badly  located  road  some  simple  formula  like  the  following,  they 
would  be  justified  in  relocating  many  roads.  For  example :  The 
diagonal  road  on  a  160-acre  tract  is  .70  mile  and  saves  .30  mile  in 
going  around  it.  Assuming  3,000  tons  of  traffic  and  a  cost  of  25 
cents  per  ton  per  mile,  the  public  would  save  $225  by  the  short 
route.  This  is  enough  to  pay  the  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  at 
least  $4,000,  which  would  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  whole  farm 
at  $25  per  acre.  The  $225  alone  would  in  most  cases  pay  the  dam- 
age, and  in  many  other  cases  there  would  be  no  damage.  If  the 
short  road  is  on  a  better  grade  than  the  long  one,  the  saving  would 
be  still  greater. 

The  elimination  of  one  or  two  steep  hills  on  a  line  of  road  will 

frequently  enable  horses  to  draw  three  or  four  times  as  much  as 

they  could  draw  on  the  old  road.    It  takes  approximately  four  times 

as  much  power  to  draw  loads  up  10  per  cent,  grades  (10  feet  ver- 

M.R.B.— 2 


18  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

tical  in  100  feet  horizontal)  as  on  a  level,  but  on  a  4  per  cent,  or 
5  per  cent,  grade  a  horse  can  usually  draw  (for  a  short  time)  as 
much  as  he  can  draw  on  a  level.  A  4  per  cent,  or  5  per  cent,  grade 
is,  therefore,  considered  the  maximum  on  roads  subject  to  heavy 
hauling.  Many  steep  grades  may  be  avoided  by  locating  the  road 
around  instead  of  over  the  hill,  and  it  is  often  no  further  around  a 
hill  than  over  it ;  the  bail  of  the  bucket  is  no  longer  when  held  in  a 
horizontal  position  than  in  a  vertical.  By  going  around  we  avoid 
two  steep  hills. 

If  the  road  must  pass  up  a  steep  hill  or  mountain  side,  the  steep- 
ness of  the  grade  may  be  decreased  by  increasing  the  length  of 
the  road.  In  other  words,  eliminate  steep  grades  by  locating  the 
road  on  curved  or  zigzag  lines,  and  not  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  hill.  These  curves  should  be  care- 
fully plotted  and  the  straight  stretches  located  with  an  instrument. 
This  improves  the  looks  of  the  road  and  does  not  add  materially  to 
its  cost. 

In  studying  the  relation  of  grade  to  distance,  the  following  cal- 
culation is  interesting:  To  lift  a  ton  one  foot  high  requires  2,000 
foot  pounds  of  energy ;  on  a  road  the  surface  of  which  offers  100 
pounds  of  tractive  resistance  per  ton  the  same  energy  would  roll 
the  ton  a  horizontal  distance  of  20  feet.  To  save  one  foot  of  grade 
the  road  may  therefore  be  lengthened  20  feet. 

Roads  should  never  be  located  so  close  to  stream  beds  as  to  be 
subject  to  overflow,  or  on  ground  which  is  constantly  damp  and 
marshy. 

The  earth  road  should  have  at  least  six  hours  of  sunshine  each 
day.  This  can  be  secured  either  by  locating  the  road  with  south- 
ern or  western  exposure,  or  by  having  such  brush  and  trees  as  im- 
pede the  drying  action  of  the  sun  and  wind  removed.  With  gravel 
and  stone  roads,  «this  is  not  so  necessary,  as  a  certain  amount  of 
moisture  is  needed  on  such  roads,  especially  in  the  summer  time. 

Relocating  roads  is  not  an  engineering  problem  alone.  One 
must  also  consider  the  effect  of  the  road  on  those  who  now  live 
upon  it.  Many  farmers  dislike  to  have  the  road  placed  back  of 
their  houses  or  out  of  sight  of  it.  It  requires  tact  and  good  judg- 
ment to  secure  a  suitable  location  without  arousing  harsh  antago- 
nism. 

As  soils  differ  for  agricultural  purposes,  so  they  differ  for  roads. 
Clays  or  soils  of  fine  texture  usually  make  poor  roads,  especially 
if  they  contain  much  vegetable  matter.  The  coarser  soils,  however, 
which  contain  some  sand  or  gravel,  will  often  make  very  satisfac- 
tory roads  for  light  traffic,  provided  they  are  kept  in  proper  repair. 

If  the  road  is  composed  of  fine  clay  or  soil,  it  will  sometimes  pay 
to  resurface  it  with  top  soil  from  an  adjacent  field  which  has  sand 
or  gravel  mixed  with  it.  This  method,  called  the  "top  soil  method," 
is  now  in  successful  use  in  Clarke  county,  Ga. 

The  earth  road  can  best  be  crowned  and  ditched  with  a  road 
machine,  and  not  with  picks  and  shovels,  scoops  and  plows.  One 
road  machine,  with  suitable  power  and  operator,  will  do  the  work 
of  many  men  with  picks  and  shovels,  and  do  it  better. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  19 

The  road  machine  should  be  used  when  the  soil  is  damp,  so  as 
to  make  the  soil  bake  when  it  dries  out.  If  it  is  worked  dry,  it  takes 
more  power  to  draw  the  machine,  and,  besides,  dry  earth  and  dust 
retain  moisture  and  quickly  rut  after  rains.  The  use  of  clods,  sods, 
weeds,  or  vegetable  matter  in  building  earth  roads  should  be  avoid- 
ed, because  they  also  retain  moisture. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  put  the  working  of  the  earth  road  off 
until  August  or  September.  The  surface  is  then  baked  dry  and 
hard.  It  is  not  only  difficult  to  work,  but  is  unsatisfactory  work 
when  done.  Earth  which  is  loose  and  dry  will  remain  dusty  as 
long  as  the  dry  weather  lasts,  and  then  turn  to  mud  as  soon  as  the 
rains  begin.  By  using  the  road  machine  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
while  the  soil  is  soft  and  damp,  the  surface  is  more  easily  shaped, 
and  soon  packs  down  into  a  dry,  hard  crust,  which  is  less  liable  to 
become  dusty  in  summer  or  muddy  in  winter. 

Storm  water  should  be  disposed  of  quickly  before  it  has  time  to 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  surface.  This  can  be  done  by  giving  the 
road  a  crown  or  slope  from  the  center  to  the  sides.  For  an  earth 
road  which  is  24  feet  wide,  the  center  should  be  not  less  than  6 
inches  nor  more  than  12  inches  higher  than  the  outer  edges  of  the 
shoulders.  A  narrow  earth  road  which  is  high  in  the  middle  will 
become  rutted  almost  as  quickly  as  one  which  is  too  flat,  for  the 
reason  that  on  the  narrow  road  all  the  traffic  is  forced  to  use  only 
a  narrow  strip. 

Shoulders  are  often  formed  on  both  sides  of  the  road,  which  pre- 
vent storm  water  from  flowing  into  side  ditches,  retaining  it  in  the 
ruts  and  softening  the  roadway.  These  ruts  and  shoulders  can  be 
entirely  eliminated  with  the  road  machine  or  split-log  drag. 

Ordinarily,  the  only  ditches  needed  are  those  made  with  the 
road  machine,  which  are  wide  and  shallow.  Deep,  narrow  ditches 
wash  rapidly,  especially  on  steep  slopes,  which  is  another  good  rea- 
son for  decreasing  the  steepness  of  the  grades.  It  is  difficult  to 
maintain  an  earth  road,  or  any  kind  of  road  for  that  matter,  on  a 
steep  grade. 

The  width  of  the  earth  road  will  depend  on  the  traffic.  As  a  rule, 
25  or  30  feet  from  ditch  to  ditch  is  sufficient,  if  the  road  is  properly 
crowned.  A  road  that  is  narrower  than  25  feet  is  difficult  to  main- 
tain, for  the  above-stated  reason  that  on  narrow  roads  the  teams 
are  more  apt  to  track  than  on  a  wider  road,  causing  it  to  rut  if  sub- 
jected to  heavy  hauling. 

We  should  not  loosen,  dig  up,  or  plow  up  any  more  of  the  surface 
of  an  earth  road  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  road  should  be 
gradually  raised,  not  lowered;  hardened,  not  softened. 

On  flat  lands,  where  water  moves  slowly,  grading  material  should 
be  taken  from  the  lower  ditch,  and  culverts  supplied  where  water- 
ways occur.  A  shallow  ditch  on  the  upper  side  makes  it  possible 
to  give  culverts  a  good  fall.  Two  or  more  small  pipes,  instead  of 
one  large  one  of  equal  capacity,  may  be  used  for  culverts,  especially 
if  the  large  pipe  necessitates  much  grading  or  raising  of  the  road- 
way. At  least  6  inches  should  be  left  between  each  pipe,  and  earth 


20  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

should  be  tamped  around  them  thoroughly,  so  as  to  prevent  a  wash- 
out. 

To  prevent  washing  on  steep  roads,  the  water  should  be  carried 
under  the  surface  at  frequent  intervals  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
side,  and  from  the  lower  side  away  from  the  road.  Five  12-inch 
pipes  in  a  mile  of  roadway  are  about  as  cheap  and  far  better  than  one 
24-inch  pipe.  The  water  must  be  disposed  of  before  it  gains  force 
or  headway,  or  has  time  to  damage  the  road. 

If  culvert  pipes  have  a  fall  of  1  inch  to  100  feet,  the  water  passing 
through  them  has  a  velocity  of  about  four  miles  an  hour ;  but  if 
the  fall  is  36  inches  to  100  feet,  the  velocity  is  about  20  miles  per 
hour.  Hence  a  pipe  laid  upon  a  fall  of  36  inches  to  100  feet,  will 
have  five  times  the  capacity  of  a  pipe  of  equal  diameter  laid  on  a 
grade  of  1  inch  to  100  feet.  A  24-inch  pipe,  having  a  fall  of  1  inch 
to  100  feet,  will  have  a  capacity  of  3,296  gallons  per  minute ;  where- 
as a  12-inch  pipe,  having  a  fall  of  36  inches  to  100  feet,  will  have 
a  capacity  of  2,554  gallons  per  minute. 

Bv  increasing  the  fall,  we  increase  the  capacity  of  the  pipe,  de- 
crease the  size  of  the  pipe  necessary,  and,  therefore,  decrease  the 
cost  of  the  culverts.  Furthermore,  culverts  laid  flat  will  soon  fill 
up,  but  if  given  a  good  fall  they  will  keep  themselves  clear. 

If  much  fall  is  obtained  in  a  culvert  pipe,  the  spillway  should  be 
paved.  Earth  should  be  tamped  under  and  around  the  pipe  in  lay- 
ers, and  should  be  of  sufficient  depth  to  prevent  the  pipe  frorh  be- 
ing broken  by  traffic ;  but  under  no  circumstances  should  a  ridge 
over  the  culvert  be  allowed,  for  it  not  only  endangers  the  life  of  the 
culvert,  but  is  a  menace  to  traffic. 

An  attempt  to  drain  mudholes  with  culvert  pipe  will  fail  in 
most  cases.  The  water  should  be  drained  off  by  means  of  open 
ditches,  and  the  soft  mud  then  thrown  out  and  replaced  with  just 
enough  good  firm  earth  to  make  it  level  (after  consolidation)  with 
the  surrounding  surface.  If  mudholes  in  earth  roads  are  filled  with 
brush  or  stone,  it  usually  results  in  two  mudholes,  one  at  each  end. 

Repairs  should  be  made  when  needed,  and  not  once  a  year  after 
crops  are  "laid  by."  One  hundred  days'  labor,  judiciously  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year,  will  accomplish  more  and  better  work 
in  the  maintenance  of  an  earth  road  than  the  same  amount  of  labor 
expended  in  six  days,  especially  if  the  six  days  are  in  August,  Sep- 
tember, or  October,  when  the  ground  is  hard  and  dry. 

Because  of  its  simplicity,  its  efficiency,  and  cheapness,  the  split- 
log  drag,  or  some  similar  device,  is  destined  to  come  into  more  and 
more  general  use.  With  the  drag  properly  built  and  its  use  well 
understood,  the  maintenance  of  earth  and  gravel  roads  becomes 
a  simple  and  inexpensive  matter.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  log  so  light  that  one  man  can  lift  it  with  ease,  as  a  light  drag 
responds  more  readily  to  various  methods  of  hitching  and  the  shift- 
ing positions  of  the  operator  than  a  heavier  one. 

The  best  material  for  the  drag  is  a  dry  cedar  log,  though  elm, 
walnut,  box  elder,  or  soft  maple  are  excellent.  Oak,  hickory,  or 
ash  are  too  heavy.  The  log  should  be  from  seven  to  ten  feet  long, 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  21 

and  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  end.  It  should 
be  split  carefully  as  near  the  center  as  possible,  and  the  heaviest 
and  best  slab  chosen  for  the  front.  Holes  are  then  bored  per- 
pendicular and  at  right  angles  to  the  split  faces,  and  in  such  a  way 
that  one  end  of  the  back  slab  when  fastened  in  position  will  be 
about  16  inches  nearer  the  center  of  the  road  than  the  front  one. 
This  gives  the  "set-back,"  so  that  the  logs  will  track  when  drawn 
along  the  road  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  The  two  halves  of 
the  logs  are  fastened  together  by  stakes,  these  being  mortised  into 
the  holes  above  mentioned.  A  cleated  board  is  placed  between  the 
slabs  for  the  driver  to  stand  on. 

A  strip  of  iron  placed  along  the  lower  face  of  the  front  slab  will 
prevent  the  drag  from  wearing.  The  drag  may  be  fastened  to  the 
doubletree  by  means  of  a  trace  chain.  The  chain  should  be 
wrapped  around  the  left-hand  or  rear  stake  and  passed  over  the 
front  slab.  Raising  the  chain  at  this  end  of  the  slab  permits  the 
earth  to  drift  past  the  face  of  the  drag.  The  other  end  of  the  chain 
should  be  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  opposite  end  of  the  front 
slab  and  held  by  a  pin  passed  through  a  link. 

For  ordinary  purposes  the  hitch  should  be  so  made  that  the  un- 
loaded drag  will  follow  the  team  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 
The  team  should  be  driven  with  one  horse  'on  either  side  of  the 
right-hand  wheel  track  or  rut  the  full  length  of  the  portion  to  be 
dragged,  and  made  to  return  in  the  same  manner  over  the  other 
half  of  the  roadway.  Such  treatment  will  move  the  earth  toward 
the  center  of  the  roadway  and  raise  it  gradually  above  the  sur- 
rounding level. 

The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  dragging  roads  once  each 
way  after  each  heavy  rain.  In  some  cases,  however,  one  drag- 
ging every  three  or  four  weeks  has  been  found  sufficient  to  keep  a 
road  in  good  condition. 

When  the  soil  is  moist,  but  not  sticky,  the  drag  does  its  best 
work.  As  the  soil  in  the  field  will  bake  if  plowed  wet,  so  the  road 
will  bake  if  the  drag  is  used  on  it  when  it  is  wet.  If  the  roadway  is 
full  of  holes  or  badly  rutted,  the  drag  should  be  used  once  when 
the  road  is  soft  and  slushy.  This  is  particularly  applicable  before 
a  cold  spell  in  winter,  when  it  is  possible  to  so  prepare  the  surface 
that  it  will  freeze  smooth. 

Not  infrequently  conditions  are  met  which  may  be  overcome  by 
a  slight  change  in  the  manner  of  hitching.  Shortening  the  chain 
tends  to  lift  the  front  slab  and  make  the  cutting  slight,  while  a 
longer  hitch  causes  the  front  slab  to  sink  more  deeply  into  the  earth 
and  act  on  the  principle  of  a  plow. 

Sand-Clay  Roads. 

About  1894,  an  agent  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  found  several 
miles  of  natural  road  near  Cape  Charles  on  the  sandy  shores  of 
Eastern  Virginia  which  were  smooth  and  firm  throughout  the  year. 
An  examination  of  the  surface  soil  of  which  the  road  was  composed 


22  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

developed  the  fact  that  the  surface  contained  a  mixture  of  sand 
and  clay.  An  expert  of  the  office,  a  few  years  later,  while  attend- 
ing a  road  convention  in  Marion  county,  Fla.,  found  that  the  road 
officials  of  that  county  were  making  excellent  roads  by  surfacing 
the  old  sandy  roads  with  a  natural  clay  and  sand  mixture  obtained 
from  a  pit  near  Bartow.  From  these  observations,  the  origin  of  the 
sand-clay  road  may  be  traced. 

Comparatively  little,  if  any,  sand-clay  road  had  been  constructed 
previous  to  1894;  but  since  that  time  experts  of  the  Office  of  Pub- 
lic Roads  have  been  studying  and  experimenting  with  this  method 
of  construction,  and  advocating  its  use,  with  the  result  that,  ten 
years  after  the  first  observation  was  made  along  this  line  by  the 
Office,  there  were  nearly  3,000  miles  of  sand-clay  roads  in  the 
South,  distributed  as  follows : 

Miles 

South    Carolina 1,575 

Georgia    513 

North  Carolina  438 

Morida    435 

Alabama 12 

At  the  present  time  there  are  probably  twice  as  many  miles  as  in 
1904;  its  popularity  being  due  to  the  facts  that  it  is  cheap,  com- 
paratively firm  and  durable,  easy  to  construct  and  repair,  and  that 
the  materials  out  of  which  it  is  built  are  plentiful  in  many  sections 
of  the  country. 

The  sand-clay  road  is  made  by  mixing  the  sand  and  clay  in  such 
a  way  that  the  grains  of  sand  touch  each  other;  the  spaces  between 
the  grains  being  filled  with  clay,  which  acts  as  a  binder. 

The  approximate  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  may  be  determined  by 
filling  a  vessel  with  a  sample  of  the  sand  to  be  used,  and  another 
vessel  of  the  same  size  with  water.  The  water  is  poured  carefully 
into  the  sand  until  it  reaches  the  point  of  overflowing.  The  volume 
of  water  removed  from  the  second  vessel  represents  approximately 
the  proportion  of  clay  needed. 

The  proportion  of  sand  and  clay  can  best  be  determined,  how- 
ever, as  the  work  progresses,  as  some  clay  will  contain  more  sand 
than  others.  In  fact,  clays  are  very  frequently  found  which  already 
contain  about  the  right  proportion  of  sand.  This  is  true  of  the  Bar- 
tow  clay,  above  referred  to. 

The  Clay  on  Sand  Road. 

If  the  road  to  be  treated  is  sandy,  the  surface  is  first  leveled  off 
and  crowned  with  a  road  machine,  the  crown  being  about  one- 
half  inch  to  the  foot  from  the  center  to  the  sides.  The  clay  is  then 
dumped  on  the  surface  and  carefully  spread,  so  that  it  will  be  from 
6  inches  to  8  inches  in  depth  at  the  center,  and  gradually  decreas- 
ing in  depth  towards  the  sides.  A  layer  of  clean  sand  is  then 
usually  added,  which  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  clay,  either  by 
traffic  or  by  means  of  plows  and  disk  or  tooth  harrows. 

The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  thoroughly  mixing  or 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  23 

puddling  the  materials  when  wet.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable 
to  do  the  mixing  in  wet  weather.  The  mixing  can  be  left  to  the 
traffic  after  the  materials  have  been  properly  placed;  but  this  in- 
volves a  whole  winter  and  spring  of  bad  road,  and  even  then  the 
mixing  is  not  always  satisfactory.  In  all  cases,  it  is  advisable  to 
dress  the  road  with  a  road  machine  or  split-log  drag  after  the  ma- 
terials have  been  thoroughly  mixed,  and  to  give  it  a  crown  of  not 
more  than  1  inch  or  less  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot 
from  the  center  to  the  sides.  A  light  coating  of  sand  may  then  be 
added.  The  use  of  the  road  machine  or  drag  should  be  continued 
at  frequent  intervals  until  the  surface  is  smooth  and  firm. 

The  Sand  on  Clay  Road. 

If  the  road  to  be  treated  is  composed  of  clay,  it  should  first  be 
brought  to  a  rough  grade  with  a  road  machine.  The  surface  should 
then  be  plowed  and  thoroughly  pulverized  by  harrowing  to  a  depth 
of  about  4  inches,  after  which  it  is  given  a  crown  or  slope  of  about 
one-half  inch  to  the  foot  from  the  center  to  the  sides.  It  is  then 
covered  with  6  inches  to  8  inches  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  which  is 
spread  thicker  in  the  center  than  at  the  sides.  The  materials  should 
then  be  mixed  with  plows  and  harrows  while  they  are  comparative- 
ly dry,  after  which  they  are  finally  puddled  with  a  harrow  during 
wet  weather.  If  clay  works  to  the  surface  and  the  road  becomes 
sticky,  more  sand  should  be  added. 

The  road  is  then  shaped,  crowned,  and  ditched  in  the  usual  man- 
ner with  a  road  machine.  This  should  be  done  when  the  surface 
is  soft,  yet  stiff  enough  to  pack  well  under  the  roller  or  the  traffic. 
Wide,  but  shallow,  ditches  should  be  provided  on  both  sides  of  the 
road,  and  culverts  or  cross-drains  should  be  placed  wherever  water 
flows  across  the  road,  for  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the  "sand 
on  clay"  roads  be  well  drained. 

After  the  "clay  on  sand"  or  the  "sand  on  clay"  road  is  com- 
pleted, it  should  be  carefully  maintained  until  the  surface  becomes 
firm  and  smooth.  The  construction  of  this  type  of  road  is  by  no 
means  a  quick  operation.  If  soft,  sticky  places  appear,  more  sand 
should  be  added,  and  if  loose,  sandy  places  are  found,  more  clay  is 
needed.  It  is  just  as  important  to  attend  to  these  small  details  as 
to  any  other  part  of  the  work;  for,  if  they  are  neglected,  the  road  is 
liable  to  fail. 

It  requires  approximately  one  cubic  yard  of  clay  to  surface  1% 
running  yards  of  road  12  feet  in  width,  or  about  1,175  cubic  yards 
to  the  mile.  From  three-fourths  to  one  cubic  yard  will  make  a  load 
for  two  horses  on  a  dry  clay  road.  The  cost  of  the  road  will  there- 
fore depend  largely  upon  the  distance  the  material  is  hauled,  the  aver- 
age being  from  $300  to  $800  per  mile.  A  road  built  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  at  Gainesville,  Fla.,  one  mile  long, 
14  feet  wide,  and  having  9  inches  of  sand-clay  surface,  cost  $881  per 
mile,  or  10  cents  per  square  yard.  Another  sand-clay  road  built  by  the 
Office  at  Tallahassee,  Fla.,  16  feet  wide,  7  inches  thick,  cost  $470  per 
mile,  or  about  5  cents  per  square  yard. 


24  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


Gravel  Roads. 

A  properly  located  and  well-drained  earth  foundation  is  the 
prerequisite  of  a  good  gravel  road.  It  is  a  waste  of  material  and 
labor  to  apply  gravel  to  the  surface  of  a  road  which  is  full  of  ruts 
and  holes.  A  smooth,  solid  foundation  is  just  as  necessary  as  in 
macadam  construction. 

There  are  so  many  different  kinds  of  gravel  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  lay  down  principles  of  construction  which  will  hold 
good  in  all  cases.  A  road  building  gravel  should  bind  well.  The 
qualities  of  hardness  and  toughness  are  important,  but  not  so  im-  ' 
portant  as  the  cementing  value.  The  angular  gravels,  with  square, 
sharp  fractures,  are  the  best.  Water-worn  creek  or  river  gravel, 
which  is  round  and  clean,  will  seldom  produce  a  satisfactory  wear- 
ing surface.  Such  material  may,  however,  be  used  for  a  founda- 
tion, and  bonded  with  a  layer  of  suitable  pit  gravel. 

Two  deposits  of  gravel  are  seldom  found  which  are  exactly 
alike.  When  there  are  several  pits  to  choose  from,  hand  samples 
should  be  selected  from  each  and  carefully  examined,  and  if  pos- 
sible a  test  made  to  ascertain  the  cementing  value  of  each.  By  sep- 
arating the  gravel,  sand,  and  clay  a  fair  idea  of  the  relative  value 
of  each  may  be  ascertained.  If  there  is  still  any  doubt  as  to  which 
is  the  best,  a  short  stretch  of  road  built  of  each  sample  will  indicate, 
within  a  few  months,  not  only  the  cementing  value,  but  also  the 
wearing  quality,  of  each. 

If  the  gravel  varies  in  size  from  very  small  pieces  to  large  pieces, 
good  results  may  sometimes  be  secured  by  separating  the  gravel 
with  a  hand  or  power  screen.  Gravel  roads  built  of  screened 
gravel  are  usually  superior  to  those  built  of  unscreened  gravel,  al- 
though there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

When  the  gravel  is  separated,  the  larger  sized  pieces  are  used 
for  the  foundation,  the  medium  sized  pieces  for  the  wearing  course, 
and  the  smaller  pieces  and  dust  for  the  binder,  as  in  regular  mac- 
adam construction.  If  there  is  an  excess  of  earth,  sand,  or  clay, 
as  is  often  the  case,  these  can  and  should  be  removed  by  screening. 

An  outfit  consisting  of  a  gasoline  engine,  hopper,  elevator,  re- 
volving screen,  and  medium  size  bins  for  three  sizes  of  gravel  will 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $1,200.  For  a  small  additional  outlay 
a  drum  and  cable  may  be  attached  to  the  engine  with  which  to  oper- 
ate a  bucket  conveyor  to  carry  the.  gravel  from  the  pit  to  the 
hopper. 

A  platform  built  around  the  mouth  of  the  hopper,  with  inclined 
wings  so  arranged  that  the  teams  may  drive  on  and  off  the  plat- 
form, will  make  it  possible  to  deliver  the  gravel  to  the  hopper  with 
drag  or  wheel  scrapers.  A  similar  platform,  with  trap  doors  and 
sufficient  space  beneath  for  wagons  to  pass  under  it,  is  useful  in 
pits  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  screen  the  gravel.  With  such  a 
platform,  wheel  and  drag  scrapers  may  be  used  in  delivering  the 
material  from  the  pit  to  the  platform,  from  which  it  is  dumped 
automatically  through  the  trapdoors  to  the  wagons  beneath. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  25 

There  are  many  different  methods  of  building  gravel  roads  in 
use  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Most  of  them,  however,  are 
built  without  method  or  plan.  Some  fail  because  the  material  is 
poor,  but  the  majority  of  the  failures  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
material  is  not  properly  applied  to  the  surface. 

The  following  are  the  principal  causes  of  failure.  First :  Poor 
material ;  round,  water-worn  gravel ;  too  little  binder  or  too  much 
sand,  earth,  or  clay.  Second :  Unstable  foundations ;  placing  gravel 
on  surfaces  filled  with  ruts  and  holes.  Third:  Poor  drainage;  too 
flat,  or  too  high  in  the  middle;  side  ditches  too  deep  or  not  deep 
enough ;  culverts  which  are  too  small,  or  which  are  laid  so  flat  that 
they  are  soon  filled  with  silt  or  trash.  Fourth :  Spreading  gravel  in 
dry  weather ;  dumping  it  in  piles  and  leaving  it  for  the  traffic  to 
spread.  Fifth :  Making  the  road  too  narrow  to  accommodate  the 
traffic,  or  so  narrow  that  wagons  will  track  and  soon  cut  the  surface 
into  ruts.  Sixth :  Failure  to  keep  ruts  and  holes  filled  with  gravel. 

With  good  binding  or  cementing  gravel  satisfactory  roads  may 
be  made  by  surfacing  the  prepared  earth  subgrade  with  one  or  two 
layers  of  this  material.  The  earth  road  is  first  shaped  with  a  road 
machine,  and,  if  possible,  rolled  with  an  8  or  10  ton  roller.  The  earth 
foundation  should  be  crowned  but  slightly.  The  material  is  spread 
in  one,  two,  or  three  layers  to  a  total  depth  of  from  8  to  10  inches 
in  the  center  and  from  4  to  6  inches  at  the  sides,  gradually  di- 
minishing in  depth  to  a  feather  edge  toward  the  side  ditches.  The 
depth  of  gravel  will  depend  upon  the  traffic,  and  to  some  extent  on 
the  material,  as  well  as  the  earth  subgrade. 

If  the  material  is  spread  in  layers,  then  the  coarser  grade  is  placed 
for  the  foundation,  and  the  finer  grade  for  the  wearing  surface. 
In  case  screened  gravel  is  used,  the  larger  size  pieces,  those  which 
will  not  pass  a  three-inch  ring,  should  be  thrown  out  or  raked  into 
the  foundation  course  as  the  work  progresses. 

Some  varieties  of  gravel  must  be  sprinkled  and  rolled  before 
they  will  consolidate,  while  others  bind  well  under  ordinary  traf- 
fic. Sometimes  a  good  practice  is  to  apply  the  gravel  in  wet  weath- 
er, or  to  wet  the  gravel  before  it  is  applied  to  the  road.  In  some 
cases  a  little  clay  or  loam  will  hasten  the  binding  process.  Care 
should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  use  too  much  clay  or  loam,  as 
these  will  soften  in  wet  weather.  An  excess  of  clay  makes  the  road 
dusty  in  summer  and  muddy  in  winter. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  build  the  road  without  a  roller  or 
sprinkler,  the  work  should  be  done  in  the  spring  of  the  year  before 
the  rains  have  ceased.  The  traffic  will  pack  the  material  much  bet- 
ter then  than  in  the  summer  or  fall.  The  road  machine  or  split-log 
drag  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  removing  ruts  and  filling  holes 
while  the  road  is  green.  A  little  attention  while  the  road  is  green 
is  better  than  much  attention  later,  on  the  principle  that  an  ounce 
of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure. 

The  width  of  the  gravel  road  will  depend  upon  traffic  condi- 
tions. It  should  be  surfaced  to  a  width  of  at  least  12  feet,  and,  if 
possible,  to  a  width  of  from  14  to  16  feet.  A  narrow  strip  of  gravel 


26  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

will  wear  out  much  more  quickly  than  one  which  is  a  little  wider. 
If  the  road  is  surfaced  to  a  width  of  16  feet,  then  the  crown  ought 
to  be  from  6  to  8  inches  from  the  center  to  the  outside  edge  of  the 
gravel.  This  is  sufficient  for  drainage.  If  the  crown  is  higher 
than  about  an  inch  to  the  foot,  the  traffic  will  be  forced  to  the  center 
of  the  road  and  cause  it  to  wear  more  quickly. 

Gravel  roads  are  often  built  in  the  same  manner  as  macadam 
roads;  that  is,  the  foundation  is  provided  with  shoulders  and  the 
material  is  spread  in  two  or  three  layers  of  uniform  thickness  from 
center  to  sides.  This  method  can  be  used  to  advantage  where 
gravel  is  scarce,  as  the  shoulders  are  composed  of  earth  instead  of 
gravel. 

In  case  gravel  fails  to  bind  or  wear  well,  good  results  have  been 
obtained  by  applying  to  the  surface  a  thin  layer  of  crushed  rock 
screening,  preferably  trap.  Several  miles  of  the  gravel  roads  in 
Rock  Creek  Park,  Washington,  D.  C.,  are  treated  in  this  way.  They 
look  like  macadam  roads,  and  wear  almost  as  well,  but  are  very 
much  cheaper. 

The  suggestions  as  to  drainage  and  culverts  given  in  the  paper 
on  earth  roads  also  apply  to  gravel  roads. 

The  split-log  drag  has  been  used  with  great  success  in  maintain- 
ing gravel  roads.  There  is  a  tendency  on  most  gravel  roads  for 
the  material  to  work  toward  the  sides,  forming  shoulders,  which 
prevent  water  from  reaching  the  side  ditches.  The  standing  water 
thus  held  back  softens  the  foundation,  causing  the  surface  to  give 
way  into  ruts  and  holes.  If  the  road  is  rolling,  these  shoulders 
sometimes  cause  the  water  to  follow  the  wheel  tracks  and  wash 
the  surface  into  deep  gullies.  An  occasional  dragging  will  prevent 
the  formation  of  such  shoulders. 

The  gravel  road  ought  to  have  a  little  attention  throughout  the 
year,  instead  of  a  great  deal  of  attention  at  one  time.  One  hun- 
dred days'  labor,  distributed  throughout  the  year,  applied  on  say 
5  miles  of  gravel  road,  will  keep  it  in  much  better  condition  than 
the  same  amount  of  labor  applied  in  a  day  or  a  week. 

No  one  who  has  observed  the  results  will  fill  mudholes  in  gravel 
roads,  or  any  kind  of  road  for  that  matter,  with  large  rocks  or 
boulders,  yet  there  are  probably  more  mudholes  filled  in  this  way 
than  with  gravel.  After  the  mud  has  been  removed,  the  holes 
should  be  filled  with  the  same  kind  of  gravel  as  that  with  which 
the  road  is  surfaced. 

When  the  gravel  is  worked  with  a  road  machine,  the  sods  and 
weeds  are  often  left  in  windrows  in  the  middle.  These  should  be 
raked  up  and  thrown  into  the  adjacent  field,  or  otherwise  disposed 
of,  as  they  retain  moisture  and  cause  lumps  and  holes  if  left  on  the 
road. 

The  cost  of  building  gravel  roads  varies  greatly  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  depending  principally  on  the  distance  material  is 
hauled  and  the  cost  of  labor  and  teams.  So  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, the  average  cost  of  building  19,900  miles  of  gravel  road  in 
Indiana  was  $1,473  per  mile.  The  average  cost  of  building  237 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  27 

miles  of  gravel  roads  in  New  Jersey  was  $2,425  per  mile.  The  New 
Jersey  roads  were  surfaced  to  an  average  width  of  15.3  feet  and  an 
average  depth  of  8.4  inches.  The  average  cost  of  building  70  miles 
in  Connecticut  was  $3,741  per  mile.  The  Connecticut  roads  were 
surfaced  to  an  average  width  of  15.5  feet  and  to  a  depth  of  8.3 
inches. 

From  these  figures  it  appears  that  gravel  roads  in  Connecticut 
cost  about  twice  as  much  as  the  gravel  roads  of  Indiana.  A  closer 
scrutiny  of  the  Indiana  figures,  however,  reveals  the  fact  that  the 
cost  in  that  state  varies  from  $300  to  $3,500  per  mile.  Most  of  the 
gravel  roads  in  Indiana  are  built  by  the  farmers  in  working  out 
their  taxes,  which  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  method  of  road  build- 
ing. The  material  is  usually  spread  on  the  rough,  unprepared  sur- 
face to  a  depth  of  from  8  to  12  inches  and  to  a  width  of  from  9  to 
14  feet,  and  is  then  left  for  traffic  to  spread  and  consolidate.  The 
gravel  roads  of  Connecticut,  however,  are  built  under  the  direction 
of  the  State  Highway  Commissioner,  who  is  an  experienced  high- 
way engineer.  The  material  is  well  selected,  spread  on  a  prepared 
foundation,  and  properly  consolidated.  While  Connecticut  gravel 
roads  may  cost  twice  as  much  as  those  of  Indiana,  they  are  un- 
doubtedly twice  as  good  and  are  worth  what  they  cost. 

The  average  cost  of  maintenance  will  vary  as  much  as  the  cost 
of  construction,  and  will  depend,  not  only  on  the  quality  of  ma- 
terial used,  but  also  on  the  method  of  construction  as  well  as  the 
volume  of  traffic.  The  average  cost  of  maintaining  19,900  miles  of 
gravel  road  in  Indiana,  which  had  been  built  over  five  years,  was 
about  $90  per  mile  per  annum. 

While  the  original  cost  of  stone  roads  per  mile  in  Indiana  was 
nearly  doubly  the  cost  of  gravel  roads,  the  cost  of  maintenance  per 
mile  per  annum  was  about  one-half.  If  the  original  cost  of  con- 
struction is  added  to  the  cost  of  maintenance  for  20  years,  it  will 
be  seen  that  Indiana  gravel  roads  have  cost  about  as  much  as  the 
stone  roads.  The  facts  emphasize  the  importance  of  testing  the 
relative  wearing  quality  of  all  available  materials  before  large 
amounts  of  money  are  expended  in  road  building. 


-    CREOSOTED  WOOD  BLOCK  STREET  PAVING. 

"Wood  Block  Pavements"  was  the  subject  allotted  to  Mr.  An- 
drew Rinker,  of  Minnesota,  after  which  the  delegates  adjourned  for 
lunch. 

PAPER  BY  ANDREW  RINKER. 

In  preparing  this  paper,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  cover  the  subject 
of  Street  Paving  generally,  but  confine  it  more  particularly  to 
the  Creosoted  Wrood  Block  Street  Paving  as  relates  to  our  investi- 
gations of  the  subject  and  the  experience  obtained  by  its  adoption 


28  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

and  use  in  the  city  of  Minneapolis  during  the  past  eight  years — 
1902  to  1909,  inclusive. 

The  first  of  what  might  be  termed  the  Modern  Creosoted  Wood 
Block  Street  Pavement  was  laid  in  this  city  during  the  season  of 
1902  on  Tenth  Street  South,  at  that  time  considered  a  residence 
street,  although,  after  being  paved,  developed  into  a  street  of  con- 
siderable heavy  traffic.  At  that  time  very  little  paving  of  this 
character  had  been  laid  in  the  United  States,  and  our  means  of 
determining  its  relative  merits  as  to  durability,  desirability,  cost,  etc., 
with  that  of  other  kinds  of  pavement,  were  rather  limited.  Indian- 
apolis, which  was  practically  the  "pioneer  city"  in  its  adoption,  had 
some  of  it.  A  small  portion  of  Michigan  Boulevard,  in  front  of  the 
Auditorium  Hotel,  and  the  Rush  Street  Bridge,  in  Chicago,  were 
paved  with  it,  practically  for  experimental  purposes.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  Indianapolis  blocks  for  the  first  few  years  after  the 
adoption  of  the  creosoted  block  paving  consisted  only  of  a  dipping 
or  natural  absorption  process ;  there  being  no  pressure  used  to 
increase  penetration  of  oil,  and  the  timber  used  being  Washington 
red  cedar. 

The  writer  is  informed  that  the  photographs  that  have  been  given 
wide  circulation  throughout  the  country,  showing  a  buckling  of 
the  so-called  creosoted  block  paving  in  that  city,  due  to  expansion 
and  contraction,  is  practically  all  of  the  dipped  block  variety ;  that 
the  pavement  laid  during  more  recent  years,  treated  under  the 
vacuum  and  pressure  method  with  from  12  to  16  pounds  of  oil  to 
the  cubic  foot,  do  not  show  such  conditions ;  and  that  the  photo- 
graphs are  unfair  representations  of  the  up-to-date  creosote  paving 
in  Indianapolis. 

The  first  pavement  of  this  character  laid  in  Minneapolis  (that 
on  Tenth  Street  South)  is  a  long  long-leaf  Georgia  pine  block, 
with  a  treatment  of  about  12  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot.  This 
pavement  has  now  had  seven  years'  wear  and  shows  very  little 
deterioration.  .  No  repairs  due  to  traffic  conditions  have  been  neces- 
sary, and,  if  we  can  judge  as  to  its  lasting  qualities  from  its  present 
appearance,  it  will  still  be  in  good  condition  at  the  end  of  an  addi- 
tional seven-year  period. 

After  1902  the  blocks  used  were  principally  Norway  pine,  with 
some  tamarack.  The  city  council  adopted  the  Norway  pine  block 
for  two  reasons :  One,  that  it  was  less  expensive ;  the  other,  it  was 
practically  a  local  product,  consisting  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin 
timber.  It  was  also  assumed  that  the  cheaper  and  softer  kinds  of 
timber  would  give  satisfactory  results  after  treatment.  It  was  on 
this  theory  that  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  For- 
est Service,  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  city  of  Minneapolis 
and  two  of  the  creosoting  companies  to  lay  an  experimental  pave- 
ment in  Minneapolis  (as  described  in  Circular  No.  141  of  the  United 
States  Agriculture  Department).  It  might  be  well  to  state  at  this 
time  that  the  department  named  has  been  severely  criticised  by 
parties  interested  in  other  kinds  of  street  paving,  on  account  of  the 
publication -of  Circular  No.  141,  assuming  that  the  Department  of 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  29 

Agriculture  had  no  right  to  exploit  the  creosote  wood  pavement  as 
against  other  kinds.  This  seems  to  be  an  unjust  criticism,  as  our 
understanding  with  the  Forestry  Bureau  was  that  the  experi- 
ments were  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  relative 
merits  of  different  kinds  of  wood,  and  whether  the  cheaper  and 
softer  woods,  after  treatment,  would  not  prove  satisfactory.  This, 
undoubtedly,  was  the  writer's  understanding  of  the  object  sought 
in  making  the  experiment. 

As  to  this  particular  experimental  pavement:  During  the  re- 
maining 5  months  of  1906  (August  to  December,  inclusive)  after 
the  pavement  was  laid,  and  during  the  entire  12  months  of  1907, 
records  of  travel  were  taken  twice  each  month,  and  during  the 
year  1908,  once  each  month,  all  of  them  for  12-hour  periods,  from 
6  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  The  tonnage  included  weight  of  horses  and 
vehicles.  A  plan  of  Nicollet  avenue  roadway,  showing  the  location, 
extent,  and  kind  of  blocks  used,  together  with  a  tabulated  statement 
of  the  record  of  travel  on  the  experimental  pavement  are  hereto 
attached.  Where  the  letters  "S"  and  "W"  appear  in  the  table,  the 
traffic  consisted  of  sleds  and  wagons,  as  the  pavement  was  covered 
with  ice  and  snow  during  a  portion  of  each  winter.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  this  experimental  pavement  has  been  in  use  less  than 
three  years,  the  writer  does  not  feel  warranted  in  concluding  that 
the  portions  of  it  that  appear  to  be  in  the  best  condition  at  the 
present  time  will  continue  to  show  the  best  results  at  the  end  of 
a  period  of  10  or  15  years.  Its  present  condition,  however,  shows 
a  preference  for  wood  in  the  following  order,  viz. :  Southern  pine, 
Norway  pine,  tamarack,  white  birch,  hemlock,  Western  larch,  and 
red  fir.  Our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  streets  should 
be  classified  as  to  traffic,  and  for  the  heaviest,  such  as  Nicollet  ave- 
nue, the  long  leaf  Georgia  pine  gives  the  best  results ;  for  a  medium 
heavy  or  light  traffic,  the  Norway  pine,  tamarack,  birch,  or  hem- 
lock would  give  good  results.  Much  depends,  however,  on  the 
proper  selection  of  any  of  the  timber  used,  as  the  slower  growth, 
with  not  less  than  twelve  rings  to  the  inch,  is  better  than  the  more 
rapid  growth  timber  of  the  same  kind.  As  to  the  Douglas  fir, 
while  our  experiment  does  not  prove  satisfactory,  it  may  be  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  it  is  of  the  quick  growth  variety.  Had  it 
been  a  slower  growth,  closer  fibered  fir,  the  results  would  doubtless 
have  been  as  satisfactory  as  that  of  the  Norway  pine,  tamarack,  or 
hemlock. 

Concerning  the  experience  of  Minneapolis,  generally  speaking, 
the  creosoted  wood  block  paving  has  proven  satisfactory,  not  only 
from  an  engineering  point  of  view,  but  also  from  that  of  the  prop- 
erty owner  and  taxpayer,  who  has  it  to  pay  for. 

Our  city  charter  and  ordinances  do  not  require  the  city  authori- 
ties to  pave  a  street  with  such  material  as  the  owners  of  a  larger 
part  of  the  abutting  property  may  petition  for  or  desire,  yet  during 
the  past  three  years  the  desire  of  a  very  large  majority  of  such 
owners  has  been  to  have  their  streets  paved  with  creosoted  block 
pavement,  even  at  a  greater  cost  than  that  of  other  kinds.  During 
the  past  four  years,  including  1909  orders,  the  percentage  of  creo- 


30  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

soted  block  paving  laid,  as  compared  with  all  other  kinds  is  as  fol- 
lows, viz. : 

Year  1906 Creosoted  block,  54%%.  All  other  kinds,  45%. 

Year  1907 "               58%.  "                42%. 

Year  1908 "               77%.  "                23%. 

Year  1909 75%.  25%. 

The  advantages  in  the  adoption  and  use  of  this  kind  of  pave- 
ment are  that  it  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  noiseless  pavement,  it 
is  easily  kept  clean,  the  wear  and  tear  on  horses  and  vehicles  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  it  is  antiseptic  (on  account  of  its  impregna- 
tion with  creosote  oil),  and  its  traction  resistance  is  slight. 

Some  of  the  objections  that  we  hear  against  it  are  that,  if  prop- 
erly laid  with  hard  woods  it  becomes  slippery,  and  that  it  buckles 
or  heaves  on  account  of  expansion.  As  to  these  arguments,  the 
writer's  experience  in  connection  with  the  laying  of  nearly  half  a 
million  square  yards  of  it  during  the  past  six  years  is  a  sufficient 
justification  for  the  statement  that  such  conditions  are  not  common 
in  Minneapolis :  that,  when  this  kind  of  pavement  is  slippery,  it  is 
due  to  weather  conditions  (sleet  and  glare  ice),  that  have  the  same 
effect  on  other  kinds  of  street  pavements ;  and  the  only  raising  of 
blocks  from  their  beds  is  along  the  rails  of  street  railway  tracks, 
where  water  has  penetrated  and  frozen.  This  latter  condition  pre- 
vails to  a  limited  extent,  and  by  proper  methods  of  construction 
can  be  entirely  avoided. 

The  diagram  showing  in  miles  the  different  kinds  of  street  pave- 
ments in  the  city  of  Minneapolis  for  each  year,  calculated  on  a  basis 
of  27  feet  average  width  of  roadway,  together  with  the  traffic  tables 
and  plan  heretofore  referred  to  and  hereto  appended,  are  taken 
from  the  annual  reports  and  the  official  records  of  the  City  En- 
gineer. 

The  specifications  hereto  attached  are  for  blocks  delivered  f.  o.  b. 
cars  in  the  city  of  Minneapolis,  at  points  as  convenient  as  possible 
to  the  streets  to  be  paved;  the  city  unloading  and  delivering  the 
blocks. 

The  city  of  Minneapolis  does  its  own  work  of  grading,  putting  in 
the  concrete  foundation,  and  laying  the  blocks,  by  day  labor  and 
not  by  contract. 

The  prices  of  labor,  teams,  etc.,  are  as  follows,  viz.: 

Day  of  Eight  Hours. 

Teams,  $4.00  (50  cents  per  hour),  per  day. 
Superintendent.  $5.00  per  day. 
Foreman,  $3.50  and  $4.00  per  day. 
Engineer  of  steam  roller,  $3.60  per  day. 
Block  layers,  $2.50  per  day. 
Common  laborers,  $2.00  per  day. 
Bed  man,  $3.00  per  day. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  we  have  a  chemist  at  the  treating  plant, 
who  is  paid  $3.00  per  day  every  day  (including  Sundays  and  holi- 
days) during  the  season.  Receiving  clerks,  who  receive  materials, 
are  paid  $3.00  per  day  for  each  day  they  work. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


31 


Specifications  for  Creosoted  Wood  Paving  Blocks,  Minneapolis, 

Minn.     190 — . 


Approximate  quantity, 


square  yards  or  any  part  thereof. 


Section   No.   1. 
Work     to     be 
Done. 


Section    No.   2. 
Kind,  Size,  and 

Quality       of 

Blocks. 


Section  No.  3. 
Quality,  Treat- 
ment. 

Section   No.  4. 

Oil,     Analysis, 

Distillation. 


The  work  to  be  done  under  these  specifications  is  the  fur- 
nishing and  delivering,  f.  o.  b.  cars  Minneapolis,  creosoted 
wood  paving  blocks  to  be  used  in  paving  during  the  season  of 
190—. 

The  blocks  to  be  furnished  must  be  4  inches  in  depth  (par- 
allel to  the  fiber)  4  inches  in  width  and  5  inches  to  10  inches 
in  length,  but  must  average  8  inches  in  length.  They  shall  be 
perfectly  rectangular,  of  a  uniform  depth  and  thickness,  free 
from  excessive  sap  wood,  rot,  cracks,  checks,  worm  or  knot 
holes,  or  other  injurious  defects  affecting  the  life  of  the  block 
or  the  laying  of  the  same,  and  shall  toe  made  of  sufficiently 
dry  and  well  seasoned  material  to  admit  of  proper  treatment, 
as  hereinafter  specified.  The  blocks  may  be  either  long  leaf, 
yellow  or  Georgia  pine,  Norway  pine,  or  tamarack,  but  all 
blocks  on  any  one  piece  of  work  shall  be  of  the  same  kind  of 
timber.  No  second  growth  timber  will  be  accepted.  Reason- 
able allowances  to  be  made  for  saw  cuts  and  shrinkage  in 
above-mentioned  sizes. 

The  blocks  shall  be  so  treated  that  the  pores  of  the  wood 
shall  be  entirely  impregnated  with  the  creosoting  material, 
making  it  impervious  to  water  and  preventing  decay. 

The  oil  to  be  used  in  the  treatment  of  the  blocks  shall  be 
a  pure  heavy  creosote  oil,  obtained  from  the  distillation  of 
coal  tar,  only,  and  of  the  following  quality: 

(a)  The  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  shall  be  at  least  1.12  at 
a  temperature  of  20  degrees  centigrade. 

(b)  It  shall  be  completely  liquid  at  25  degrees  centigrade  and 
show  no  deposit  on  cooling  to  22  degrees  centigrade. 

(c)  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  3%  of  matter  insoluble  in 
benzine. 

(d)  It  shall  be  subjected  to  a  distillation  test,  as  specified  be- 
low, and  shall  conform  to  the  following  requirements:     100 
grains  of  oil  shall  be  placed  in  an  8  oz.  retort,  fitted  with  a 
thermometer,  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  of  which  shall  be  placed 
%  inch  above  the  oil  and  not  moved  during  the  test.    The  dis- 
charge opening  of  the  retort  shall  be  from  20  to  24  inches 
from  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  and  the  retort  shall  be  cov- 
ered so  as  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation.    The  percentages  are 
for  dry  oil  and  by  weight.    The  average  of  a  number  of  tests 
shall  show  a  mean  of  these  percentages. 

Up  to  150  degrees  centigrade,  nothing  must  come  off. 
171  "  0%  to    0.5%. 

210  3%  to     6%. 

235  10%  to  20%. 

315  35%  to  45%. 

355  45%  to  55%. 

The  distillation  shall  be  gradual,  and  up  to  315  degrees  centi- 
grade should  be  completed  In  30  minutes  from,  the  first  drop, 
and  should  be  fully  completed  in  40  minutes.  Thermometer 
readings  to  be  corrected  for  emergent  stem. 

(e)  In  the  process  of  treatment  of  the  blocks,  not  more  than 
2%  of  water  will  be  allowed.    The  distillate  from  170  degrees 
to  210  degrees  centigrade,  will  be  approximately  tar  acids,  and 
from  210  to  235   degrees   centigrade,   will  be   approximately 
napthaline. 


32 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


Section   No.   5. 
Impregnation. 


Section  No. 
Delivery. 


Section  No.  7. 
Inspection. 


Section   No.   8. 

Final  Inspec- 
tion ;  Rejec- 
tion. 


Section  No. 
Proposals. 


Section  No.  10. 
Specials. 


Section  No.  11. 
City    Treasur- 
er's   Receipt. 


Section  No.  12. 
Bond. 


After  the  blocks  shall  have  been  made  of  the  specified  kind 
of  material  and  all  the  defective  blocks  have  been  removed, 
they  shall  be  placed  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  where  by  the  use 
of  heat  and  vacuum,  all  of  the  sap  and  moisture  shall  be  re- 
moved. The  vacuum  shall  be  from  20  to  26  inches  and  the 
heat  shall  not  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  injure,  in  any 
manner,  the  fiber  of  the  blocks.  While  the  chamber  is  under 
vacuum,  the  creosoting  mixture,  of  the  quality  as  before  speci- 
fied, and  heated  to  a  proper  temperature,  shall  be  admitted 
and  pressure  added  until  at  least  100  pounds  per  square  inch 
is  reached  and  maintained,  until  the  blocks  have  absorbed  at 
least  16  pounds  of  the  mixture  for  each  cubic  foot  of  timber, 
and  until  the  creosoting  mixture  shall  have  entirely  impreg- 
nated all  parts  of  each  and  every  block.  The  contractor  may 
use  any  practicable  and  approved  method  of  treatment,  but 
the  results  must  be  the  same,  viz.,  putting  into  each  cubic  foot 
of  wood  16  pounds  of  the  oil  as  above  specified,  without  injury 
to  the  fiber  of  the  wood. 

The  blocks  shall  be  furnished  in  such  quantities  and  at  such 
times  as  the  city  engineer  may  direct,  and,  if  so  directed,  the 
contractor  shall  furnish  1,000  square  yards  per  day.  Any  ex- 
tra cost  or  damage  occurring  by  the  failure  of  the  contractor 
to  deliver  the  blocks  as  ordered  by  the  city  engineer  shall  be 
charged  to  the  contractor  and  deducted  from  any  moneys  due, 
or  that  may  become  due,  said  contractor. 

All  blocks,  material,  oils,  and  labor,  shall  be  subject  to  the 
inspection  of  the  city  engineer  and  shall  be  done  to  his  entire 
satisfaction  and  approval.  The  contractor  shall  furnish  all 
the  facilities  for  the  proper  inspection  of  all  such  material  and 
the  measurement  of  the  same.  If  the  blocks  shall  be  made 
outside  of  the  city  of  Minneapolis,  the  contractor  shall  pay  all 
the  legitimate  expenses,  salary  excepted,  caused  by  the  placing 
and  keeping  of  an  inspector  at  the  plant ;  and  the  price  bid 
shall  include  all  such  expenses. 

Final  inspection  of  the  blocks  will  be  made  on  the  street, 
and  any  blocks  rejected  shall  ;be  removed  by  the  contractor,  at 
his  own  expense.  If  such  rejected  blocks  are  not  removed 
within  five  days  after  due  notice  by  the  city  engineer,  then  the 
said  city  engineer  shall  cause  said  rejected  blocks  to  be  re- 
moved, and  any  cost  or  expense  of  such  removal  shall  be  de- 
ducted from  any  moneys  due,  or  that  may  become  due,  the 
contractor. 

Bidders,  in  their  proposals,  will  state  a.  price  per  square 
yard,  street  measurement,  for  the  kind  of  creosote  blocks  they 
propose  to  furnish. 

If,  on  account  of  any  paving  along  the  rails  of  the  street 
railway  track,  it  will  become  necessary  to  use  a  special  block, 
or  to  use  a  filling  strip  under  the  head  of  the  rail,  the  con- 
tractor will  state  a  price  per  square  yard  for  such  special  block 
or  a  price  per  lineal  foot  for  a  creosoted  pine  board  1%  inch 
by  2y2  inches. 

A  city  treasurer's  receipt,  showing  the  deposit  of  the  sum 
of  $—  — ,  conditioned  upon  the  execution  of  the  contract, 
within  ten  days  after  the  award  of  the  same,  must  accompany 
each  proposal. 

A  bond  in  the  full  amount  of  the  contract  for  the  use  of  the 
city  of  Minneapolis,  and  of  all  persons  doing  work  or  furnish- 
ing skill,  tools,  machinery,  or  material,  under  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  such  contract,  conditioned  according  to  section  No. 
4335,  Revised  Laws  of  Minnesota  for  1905,  and  for  the  full  and 
satisfactory  completion  of  the  contract  and  to  indemnify  the 
city  of  Minneapolis  from  any  damage  that  may  arise  on  ac- 
count of  any  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  or  his 


FIGURE  1.    EGYPTIAN  STONE  BEAM  BRIDGE. 


FIGURE  2. 

BABYLONIAN  ARCH  OF  BRICK 
AT  NIPPUR. 


FIGURE  6. 
MILL  CREEK  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE. 


s  Bridpro  after  an  Old  Print 
Museum  de  St.Germaine 


FIGURE  3.    CAESAR'S  BRIDGE. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  33 

employes,  and  the  payment  of  all  just  claims,  will  be  required 

of  the  contractor  at  the  time  of  the  execution  of  the  contract. 

The  bond  to  be  approved  by  the  proper  city  officers,  signing  and 

countersigning  the  contract. 
Section  No.  13.          The  work  will  be  paid  for  on  monthly  estimates  of  the  city 

engineer,  reserving  10%  until  the  final  completion  of  the  work. 
Section  No.  14.          The  city  of  Minneapolis  reserves  the  right  to  accept  or  reject 

ARlj?etcaUona2f       aDy  OI  a11  UidS  °r  any  Portion  of  an^  bid' 

Bids. 


AFTERNOON  SESSION,  AT  2:00  P.M. 


BRIDGES  OF  STONE,  CONCRETE,  AND  STEEL. 

Mr.  Charles  Evan  Fowler,  of  Seattle,  gave  an  interesting  lecture 
on  Bridges,  illustrated  with  stereopticon  views  of  many  famous 
structures  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  His  paper  is  given 
herewith. 

PAPER  BY  CHARLES  EVAN  FOWLER,  M.  AM.  Soc.  C.  E., 
M.  CAN.  Soc.  C.  E. 

The  construction  of  bridges  for  carrying  traffic  across  streams 
dates  back  to  early  historical  times,  and  it  is  also  true  that  natural 
and  primitive  bridges  were  used  before  history  was  recorded;  the 
earliest  types  being  the  fallen  log  and  the  hanging  vines,  which 
were  used  by  our  Darwinian  ancestors  as  a  means  of  crossing  the 
rivers.  The  earliest  structures  which  could  properly  be  termed 
bridges  were  the  stone  beams,  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
which  were  used  by  the  Egyptians  and  other  ancients  for  crossing 
small  gulches. 

The  earliest  known  arch  (Fig.  2)  is  one  which  was  discovered  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylon,  and  which  dates  back  to  about  the  year  4000 
B.  C.  This  was  doubtless  the  prototype  of  the  old  masonry  Persian 
bridges,  most  of  which  had  arches  of  Gothic  outline.  The  Chinese 
have  used  stone  arches  for  many  thousands  of  years,  and  the  Jap- 
anese were  doubtless  among  the  first  to  use  structures  of  the  canti- 
lever type,  such  as  the  bridge  in  the  province  of  Etchin,  Japan.  A 
curious  type  of  structure,  partly  cantilever  and  partly  suspension, 
constructed  of  bamboo,  is  used  in  Java. 

Caesar's  bridge  across  the  Rhine,  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
early  structures  (Fig.  3),  was  nothing  more  than  a  pile  bridge, 
while  Trajan's  famous  bridge  was  a  very  great  advance  over  this, 
being  a  more  permanent  type  of  timber  arched  spans. 


34  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

In  connection  with  the  wonderful  highways  built  by  the  Romans 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire,  stone  bridges  we,re  con- 
structed, many  of  which  are  in  use  to  this  day ;  the  well-known 
bridge  of  Augustus  being  a  splendid  example  of  the  solid  construc- 
tion employed. 

The  first  truss  bridge  was  probably  a  simple  structure,  consist- 
ing of  no  more  than  two  members,  forming  an  "A"  truss,  or 
simply  of  rafters,  such  as  were  used  in  buildings.  The  evolution 
of  the  modern  truss  bridge  from  this  can  be  readily  traced,  and  the 
many  early  truss  bridges  constructed  of  timber  in  the  United  States 
represent  the  greatest  development  of  this  class  of  structures,  until 
metal  began  to  be  used.  The  wooden  bowstring  arch  over  the  Sci- 
oto  river  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio  (Fig.  4),  is  a  splendid  example  of 
the  thorough  way  in  which  these  bridges  were  built ;  this  one  hav- 
ing lasted  for  70  years,  or  until  it  was  replaced  by  a  modern  steel 
bridge. 

Modern  roadway  bridges  are  of  various  types,  consisting  of  sim- 
ple girders  or  culvert  arches  over  small  streams  or  openings ;  girder 
spans  and  arches  of  various  materials  for  medium  sized  openings, 
and  truss  spans,  arches,  and  suspension  bridges  for  greater  lengths. 
In  many  instances  viaducts  are  employed,  where  ravines,  valleys, 
or  canons  are  to  be  crossed,  the  simplest  of  which  is  the  familiar 
timber  trestle  of  piling  or  frame  bents.  Where  a  more  lasting  struc- 
ture is  required,  steel  viaducts  are  used,  or  viaducts  built  of  arched 
construction  in  which  steel,  stone,  and  concrete  are  employed. 

Modern  roadway  bridges  should  be  constructed,  not  only  with 
reference  to  their  engineering  features,  but  also  as  works  of  archi- 
tecture. Where  the  spans  are  short,  and  girders  or  simple  arches 
used,  but  little  attempt  can  be  made  toward  the  artistic;  but  the 
small  stone  arch  (Fig.  5)  constructed  in  Mill  Creek  Park,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio,  gives  an  idea  of  what  may  be  done,  even  for  very  short 
spans,  in  making  them  pleasing,  as  well  as  answering  the  demands 
of  traffic.  Some  of  the  smaller  bridges  of  Japan  and  China,  suitable 
only  for  passengers,  are  very  ornamental,  similar  to  the  famous 
Camel-Back  bridge  in  China. 

When  spans  are  so  short  that  it  is  not  economical  to  use  either 
steel  girders  or  arches,  stone  beams  similar  to  the  primitive  ones 
already  spoken  of  may  be  used,  or  the  modern  type  of  reinforced 
concrete  can  be  employed,  carrying  ornamental  balustrades. 

Girders  of  somewhat  longer  span  may  also  be  constructed  of  rein- 
forced concrete,  and  the  same  materials  used  in  constructing  short 
arches,  which  can  be  made  as  ornamental  as  desired  or  as  is  possi- 
ble with  the  funds  available.  The  90-foot  steel  arch  (Fig.  6)  and 
a  90-foot  steel  eye-bar  suspension  built  by  the  author  in  Mill  Creek 
Park,  Youngstown,  Ohio,  are  examples  of  what  can  be  done  to  make 
structures  of  this  size  ornamental. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  have  through  or  overhead  bridges  to 
avoid  obstructing  the  waterway,  structures  similar  to  the  steel  bridge 
constructed  by  the  writer  over  the  Scioto  river  in  Ohio  (Fig.  7),  of  two 
spans  of  240  feet  each,  may  be  used,  and  the  portals  and  bracing 
overhead  made  of  solid  and  ornamental  construction.  A  similar 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  35 

type  of  bridge  may  be  seen  in  the  Spring  Common  span  of  175  feet 
in  length  at  Youngstown,  Ohio,  which  follows  closely  the  European 
type  of  through  roadway  structures. 

Where  there  is  sufficient  waterway  or  height  above  the  stream, 
it  is  advisable  for  architectural  effect  to  employ  arches  and  make 
the  structures  truly  ornamental.  The  earliest  vise  of  metal  for  an 
arch  of  this  kind  is  the  one  built  at  Coalbrookdale,  in  England,  in 
1777,  with  a  span  of  100  feet  and  6  inches.  A  modern  structure 
of  this  type  is  the  Market  Street  two-hinged  plate  girder  arch  at 
Youngstown,  Ohio,  with  a  span  of  210  feet  and  a  rise  of  60  feet. 
This  arch  supports  a  paved  roadway  40  feet  in  width  and  two  side- 
walks of  10  feet  each.  The  finest  example  in  the  world  of  this 
kind  of  a  bridge  is  the  famous  Washington  Bridge  over  the  Harlem 
River  in  New  York  City.  The  two  main  spans  are  steel  plate 
girder  two-hinged  arches,  each  508  feet  center  to  center  of  piers. 
The  approaches,  piers,  parapets,  and  balustrades  are  of  the  most 
elegant  design. 

Where  there  are  several  spans  and  sufficient  height,  a  series  of 
arches  may  be  employed,  as  was  done  by  the  writer  at  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
where  a  stone  bridge  was  proposed,  but  steel  finally  employed,  on  ac- 
count of  the  expenditure  necessary  for  the  stone  bridge  being  too  great. 
The  Knoxville  bridge  (Fig.  8)  is  of  the  arched  cantilever  type,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  not  being  quite  as  stiff  for  traffic,  answers 
the  requirements  in  an  artistic  sense  as  well  as  a  bridge  of  true 
arches  would  have  done.  It  is  a  symmetrical  structure,  harmoni- 
ous, and  complies  with  the  fundamental  artistic  requirement  of 
having  an  odd  number  of  spans;  an  opening  at  the  center  being 
more  pleasing  in  an  aesthetic  sense.  The  design  of  the  proposed 
stone  bridge,  on  the  other  hand,  was  for  an  unsymmetrical  struc- 
ture with  an  even  number  of  spans,  and,  while  a  striking  design, 
was  one  which  could  have  been  very  easily  improved  upon. 

The  use  of  reinforced  concrete  for  arch  bridges  is  one  of  the 
greatest  advances  that  has  been  made  in  engineering,  as  it  makes 
possible  the  construction  of  artistic  masonry  structures  at  a  com- 
paratively reasonable  cost,  or  at  very  little,  if  any,  excess  in  cost 
over  first-class  steel  structures  on  masonry  piers. 

The  arched  span  in  Eden  Park,  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (Fig.  9)  while 
of  only  moderate  length,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  effective 
designs  that  has  been  built  anywhere  in  the  United  States.  The 
construction  is  upon  the  Melan  system,  and  is  one  of  the  first  of 
this  kind  to  be  constructed  in  this  country. 

Another  beautiful  bridge  of  reinforced  concrete  is  the  two-span 
structure  at  Reno,  Nev.,  which  is  more  simple  in  design,  but  also 
very  pleasing. 

The  bridge  at  Niagara,  above  the  Falls,  is  of  reinforced  concrete 
faced  with  stone,  and,  while  this  is  hardly  to  be  defended  from 
the  standpoint  of  truthful  architecture,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not 
tell  a  true  story  of  the  construction,  it  is  a  very  pleasing  piece  of 
work. 

Nowhere  else  in  the  world  has  the  art  of  bridge  building  reached 
such  a  state  of  perfection  as  in  France,  and  the  bridges  of  Paris 


36  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

are,  most  of  them,  remarkable  structures  and  worthy  of  careful 
study.  The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  Pont  Neuf,  which  was 
commenced  in  1578,  during  the  reign  of  Henry  III,  but  was  not 
completed  until  the  year  1607.  The  spans  are  comparatively  short, 
ranging  from  31  to  62  feet  in  length,  but  the  masonry  is  of  the  most 
solid  type  and  very  chaste  design.  The  width  of  the  bridge  is  72 
feet,  and  it  is  virtually  a  street  carried  across  the  river. 

Many  of  the  bridges  in  Paris  and  in  France  were  constructed  by 
Napoleon,  there  having  been  expended  between  the  years  1804  and 
1813  nearly  forty  million  francs  for  bridges  alone ;  the  bridge  of 
Austerlitz  costing  three  million  francs.  This  was  built  to  com- 
memorate Napoleon's  victory  of  the  same  name,  and  the  structure 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pieces  of  bridge  architecture  in  exist- 
ence, having,  to  begin  with,  five,  or  an  unequal  number,  of  spans, 
with  details  of  the  most  pleasing  character  and  satisfactory  in 
every  way. 

The  Chester-Dee  bridge,  with  a  span  of  200  feet  and  a  rise  of 
42  feet,  located  at  Chester,  England,  is  one  of  the  most  notable 
stone  bridges  in  the  world.  While  a  very  long  span  for  a  stone 
bridge  and  of  the  most  solid  and  careful  construction,  the  design  is 
very  much  marred  by  the  paneling  of  the  spandrels,  which  dwarfs 
the  apparent  size  of  the  structure  and  is  not  at  all  applicable  to  a 
large  bridge. 

The  Luxembourg  Arch  was,  at  the  time  of  its  construction,  the 
longest  stone  span  that  had  even  been  built  in  the  world ;  the  length 
being  275.5  feet  (Fig.  10).  The  design  is  a  beautiful  one,  with  very 
elegant  and  appropriate  details,  and  the  lines  and  effect  of  the  en- 
tire design  are  greatly  enhanced  by  the  arched  spandrels  carrying 
the  roadway. 

The  Connecticut  Avenue  bridge  in  Washington,  D.  C.  (Fig.  11), 
is  another  notable  roadway  bridge,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
beautiful  design,  but  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  is  of  solid  con- 
crete construction  without  reinforcement,  and  without  stone  facing 
or  stone  ornamentation  of  any  kind. 

Whenever  funds  are  available,  as  much  ornamentation  of  the 
structure  and  of  the  entrances  to  it  should  be  employed  as  is  ap- 
propriate. Many  of  the  bridges  constructed  by  .the  Romans  had 
entrance  arches  at  either  one  or  both  ends,  which  were  beautiful 
pieces  of  architectural  work  and  very  appropriate.  One  of  the  old- 
est of  these  was  the  bridge  at  St.  Chamas,  with  an  arch  or  portal  at 
each  end  of  a  classic  design. 

The  Elizabeth  bridge  over  the  Danube  at  Budapest  is  one  of 
the  handsomest  of  modern  European  bridges,  being  constructed 
with  eye-bar  cables  and  with  a  main  span  of  slightly  over  950  feet. 
The  masonry  towers,  or  gatehouses,  over  the  anchorages,  are  of 
beautiful  design  and  form  a  most  pleasing  entrance. 

The  great  arch  bridge  over  the  Rhine  at  Bonn,  Germany,  has  en- 
trances or  portals  of  very  appropriate  design,  and  portals  of  very 
elegant  design  and  monumental  in  character  at  each  end  of  the 
main  span. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  37 

The  Memorial  arch  in  Bushnell  Park  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  of 
similar  design,  forms  the  portal  at  one  end  of  the  stone  arch  bridge, 
and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  works  of  this  class  in  the  United 
States. 

Many  suspension  bridges  have  towers  of  elegant  design,  and  the 
Cincinnati  bridge,  built  by  the  elder  Roebling,  has  towers  very 
well  designed  and  among  the  most  satisfactory  in  this  country. 
It  is  a  curious  fact,  however,  that  both  this  and  the  great  East 
River  bridge,  designed  by  the  same  engineer,  are  lacking  in  appro- 
priate capping  or  finishing  of  the  towers ;  the  attic  story  included 
in  the  original  design  of  the  East  River  bridge  towers  having  never 
been  built,  and  the  unsatisfactory  minarets  covering  the  saddles  of 
the  Cincinnati  bridge  not  being  in  harmony  with  the  remainder  of 
the  towers.  When  the  bridge  was  reconstructed,  some  years  ago, 
these  were  removed  and  hemispherical  caps  used  to  replace  them, 
but  the  appearance  was  only  slightly  improved. 

The  foregoing  examples  are  given  to  call  forcible  attention  to  the 
care  that  should  be  exercised  in  the  design  of  the  architectural 
features  of  bridges.  Unless  the  engineer  is  entirely  sure  of  his 
ground,  an  architect  should  be  employed  to  assist  in  the  design,  or 
at  least  supervise  the  design,  of  the  architectural  portions  of  bridges 
of  any  prominence  or  importance.  Even  the  parapets,  balustrades, 
and  railings  should  be  designed  with  great  care,  and  the  balustrade 
and  lamp  posts  of  the  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  bridge  (Fig.  12)  show 
how  pleasing  such  parts  of  a  bridge  may  be  made.  The  simple  con- 
crete parapet  used  by  the  author  on  the  abutments  of  the  Knoxville 
Cantilever  were  carefully  designed  with  classic  proportions  and 
added  greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  entire  structure. 

The  entrances  to  the  Connecticut  Avenue  bridge  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  already  referred  to,  are  flanked  by  lamp  posts  of  beautiful 
design  and  huge  concrete  lions,  which  add  to  the  monumental  char- 
acter of  this  great  structure. 

The  practical  design  of  bridges  will  not  be  taken  up  in  detail  in 
this  paper,  but  it  is  fitting  to  call  attention  to  the  care  which  should 
be  used  in  the  engineering  features.  The  foundations,  being  a 
most  important  feature,  should  be  carefully  located  to  insure  perma- 
nence, the  least  possible  interference  with  the  waterway  and  navi- 
gation, and  of  as  reasonable  a  cost  as  is  consistent  with  the  other 
features  of  the  structure. 

Where  the  bottom  is  hard  and  at  no  very  great  depth,  cofferdams 
can  be  used  to  construct  the  footings  and  base  of  the  piers  up  to 
water  level. 

Where"  the  bottom  is  soft  or  of  material  liable  to  scour,  piling 
must  be  used,  or  open  dredged  caissons  or  pneumatic  caissons  em- 
ployed. 

Each  particular  foundation  must  be  designed  with  reference  to- 
the  structure  and  load  it  is  to  carry;  piers  and  abutments  for  arch 
spans  requiring  to  be  practically  unyielding. 

Many  of  the  bridges  already  referred  to  are  illustrations  of  the 
possibilities  of  making  of  bridge  piers  architectural  features  of  the 
M.R.B.— 4 


38  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

structure,  and  the  piers  of  the  Blackwell's  Island  or  Queen's  Bridge 
in  New  York  City  are  examples  of  the  artistic  character  of  the 
piers  of  many  of  the  modern  bridges  in  this  country. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  referred  principally  to  the  archi- 
tectural features  of  bridge  construction;  it  being  assumed  that  a 
competent  bridge  engineer  would  be  employed  for  any  structure,  to 
carefully  calculate  the  stresses  and  proportion  the  parts.  Therefore 
only  the  general  engineering  questions  will  be  discussed. 

The  types  of  bridge  to  be  employed  for  different  locations  may  be 
classified  as  follows : 

Spans  under  five  feet  in  length,  steel  beams,  stone  beams,  con- 
crete steel  beams,  or  masonry  culverts. 

Spans  from  five  to  twenty-five  feet,  steel  beams,  concrete-  steel 
beams,  or  masonry  arches. 

Spans  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  feet,  steel  girders,  steel 
trusses,  steel  arches,  or  masonry  arches. 

Spans  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet,  steel  trusses,  steel 
arches,  steel  suspension  bridges,  or  masonry  arches. 

Spans  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet,  steel  trusses, 
arches,  cantilevers,  or  suspension  bridges. 

Spans  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet,  steel  arches,  canti- 
levers, or  suspension  bridges. 

Spans  one  thousand  feet  and  upwards,  steel  cantilevers  or  suspen- 
sion bridges. 

The  floors  of  bridges,  which  are  the  part  of  the  structures  con- 
tinuing the  roadways  over  streams,  are  in  their  simplest  forms 
simply  wooden  joist  and  plank  flooring.  The  joist  must  be  calcu- 
lated for  the  uniform  load  and  also  for  concentrated  loads  to  be 
carried,  and  they  are  usually  spaced  two  feet  center  to  center,  and 
should  never  be  spaced  wider  apart  in  feet  than  the  thickness  of 
the  plank  in  inches. 

The  roadway  plank  should  never  be  less  than  three  inches  in 
thickness,  and  as  much  thicker  as  is  demanded  to  withstand  the 
wear  from,  the  traffic  to  be  carried,  or  a  wearing  surface  may  be 
placed  over  the  first  layer  of  plank. 

The  use  of  steel  joists  with  this  type  of  floor  (Fig.  13)  forms  the 
simplest  kind  of  a  bridge  floor  which  may  be  said  to  be  of  a  per- 
manent form. 

Where  the  plank  has  been  creosoted,  or  treated  with  preserva- 
tive, and  a  pavement  of  wood  blocks  used,  the  floor  should  prove 
to  be  the  best  form  that  can  be  employed,  where  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  light  and  also  a  durable  roadway. 

Steel  joists  or  girders  carrying  buckle  plate  (Fig.  14)  and  a  con- 
crete base,  or  concrete  steel  base  without  the  buckle  plate,  may  be 
paved  with  treated  wood  blocks,  brick,  concrete  wearing  surface, 
asphalt  block,  or  sheet  asphalt. 

Stone  and  arch  bridges  may  have  a  roadway  on  the  supporting 
arches  of  any  of  the  permanent  forms  that  have  been  mentioned. 

Floor  systems  must  be  calculated  to  carry  their  own  weight,  a 
uniform  load,  which  is  usually  100  pounds  per  square  foot,  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  39 

such  a  concentrated  loading  as  they  may  be  called  upon  to  support, 
such  as  a  traction  engine,  steam  road  roller,  or  electric  cars. 

The  structures  or  trusses  must  be  proportioned  to  carry  their 
own  weight,  a  wind  load,  a  snow  load  in  some  cases,  temperature 
stresses,  centrifugal  force,  when  on  a  curve,  and  longitudinal  or 
traction  stresses. 

The  live  load  per  square  foot  to  be  carried  by  trusses  may  be 
taken  from  the  following  table;  class  A  being  city  or  suburban 
bridges,  and  class  B  being  country  bridges : 

Class                                                                                            A  B 

Up  to  100  feet 100  Ibs.  90  Ibs. 

100  to  150  feet 100    "  80    " 

150  to  200  feet 90    "  70    " 

200  to  300  feet 80    "  60    " 

300  to  500  feet 70    "  50 '" 

Should  either  one  of  the  two  first-class  general  specifications  for 
highway  bridges  be  used  in  designing  a  bridge  (Cooper's  or  Thach- 
er's),  the  loads  provided  for  therein  are  proper  ones  to  employ. 

The  class  of  steel  to  be  used  in  constructing  short  and  medium 
length  spans  should  be  soft-medium,  with  an  ultimate  strength  of 
from  55,000  to  65,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  nothing  more 
than  fair  reaming  need  be  done  in  the  shop. 

For  medium  length  and  long  spans,  medium  steel  should  be  used, 
having  an  ultimate  strength  of  from  60,000  to  68,000  pounds  per 
square  inch ;  but  for  important  bridges  this  should  be  punched  and 
reamed,  or  have  the  holes  drilled. 

For  long  spans,  at  least  for  compression  members  under  great 
stress,  high  steel  may  be  used  and  all  rivet  holes  drilled.  Nickel 
steel  is  also  beginning  to  be  used  for  long  spans  and  members  sub- 
jected to  great  stress. 

Stone  bridges  of  short  span  may  be  built  of  some  of  the  softer 
kinds  of  stone,  such  as  sandstone  or  the  more  durable  kinds  of  lime- 
stone, although  harder  kinds,  such  as  marble  or  granite,  are  prefer- 
able. 

Stone  bridges  of  medium  or  long  span  should  be  constructed  of 
hard  stone,  such  as  iron  limestone,  marble,  or  granite. 

Reinforced  concrete  bridges  should  be  constructed  with  the  most 
careful  .workmanship  and  of  the  very  best  materials.  The  cement, 
whether  imported  or  of  local  manufacture,  must  pass  the  require- 
ments of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

The  inspection  of  the  materials  entering  into  the  construction  of 
a  bridge  and  of  the  construction  work  as  well  should  be  carefully 
and  conscientiously  done,  and  always  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  men 
who  will  not  "strain  at  gnats  and  swallow  camels."  The  inspector 
must  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  the  one  to  see  that  both  his  employer 
and  the  contractor  get  justice. 

When  the  conditions  met  with  vary  from  those  contemplated  by 
the  plans  and  specifications,  in  justice  to  both  the  employer  and  the 
contractor,  the  inspector  should  request  the  engineer  to  make  such 


40  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

changes  as  are  just  and  equitable  to  the  contractor,  and  at  the  same 
time  see  that  no  injury  be  worked  upon  the  owner. 

No  more  fitting  words  can  be  used  in  closing  this  paper  than  to 
quote  the  foreword  from  Cooper's  Specifications : 

"The  most  perfect  system  of  rules  to  insure  success  must  be  interpreted  upon 
the  broad  grounds  of  professional  intelligence  and  common  sense." 


PORTLAND  CEMENT,  ITS  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE. 

In  the  absence  of  Spencer  B.  Newberry,  of  Ohio,  his  paper  on 
"Portland  Cement,  Its  Manufacture  and  Use,"  was  read  by  City 
Engineer  R.  H.  Thomson,  of  Seattle,  who  prefaced  the  reading  by 
saying  that  the  paper  was  by  Professor  Newberry,  and  it  must  not 
be  taken  for  granted  that  all  the  statements  contained  therein  relating 
to  the  use  of  cement  for  a  road  surface  were  concurred  in  by  the 
reader. 

PAPER  BY  $.  B.  NEWBERRY. 
Gentlemen : 

The  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
opening  of  the  "Cement  Age,"  owing  to  the  belief,  held  by  many 
thoughtful  obeservers,  that  cement  is  destined  to  be  our  most  im- 
portant and  widespread  building  material.  Certainly  the  phenom- 
enal growth  of  Portland  cement  manufacture  in  this  country,  from 
one-half  million  barrels  in  1890  to  fifty  million  barrels  in  1908,  and 
the  evidences  we  see  all  about  us  of  the  adoption  of  cement  con- 
crete, in  place  of  stone,  brick,  and  wood,  for  abutments,  founda- 
tions, bridges,  and  complete  buildings,  show  that  cement  is  making 
rapid  strides  toward  a  position  of  leading  importance  among  ma- 
terials of  construction. 

The  reasons  for  this  successful  progress  are  evident.  Cement  is 
the  "essence  of  rock"  in  portable  form.  A  relatively  small  pro- 
portion of  it  suffices  to  bind  together  any  available  fragmentary 
materials,  sand,  gravel,  slag,  stone  refuse,  into  solid  masses  of  any 
desired  shape,  and  of  strength  and  hardness  comparable  wjth  that 
of  monolithic  blocks  of  quarried  limestone.  Where  good  gravel  is 
obtainable  at  low  cost,  walls  can  be  laid  up  in  cement  concrete  at 
lower  cost  than  of  lumber  or  common  red  brick.  With  steel  rein- 
forcement it  gives  a  combination  which  shows  to  best  advantage 
the  good  qualities  of  both  materials.  Within  the  past  few  years, 
great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  beauty  and  architectural  char- 
acter of  concrete  structures,  and  there  are  now  many  edifices  of 
concrete  which  rival  in  beauty  the  best  examples  of  construction 
in  sandstone  and  marble. 

This  is  especially  the  case  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  Western  architects  have  taught  the  world  a  lesson  on 
the  artistic  possibilities  of  concrete.  The  excellent  showing  which 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  41 

cement  has  made  in  recent  great  fires  and  earthquakes  has  also 
greatly  increased  its  use  for  building.  The  city  of  Port  of  Spain, 
Trinidad,  destroyed  two  years  ago,  is  being  rapidly  rebuilt,  almost 
exclusively  of  concrete  structures,  and  nearly  as  marked  a  tendency 
toward  concrete  is  to  be  seen  in  the  new  San  Francisco. 

Striking  as  these  growing  architectural  uses  may  appear,  much 
greater  amounts  of  cement  are  consumed  in  work  in  which  beauty 
is  of  secondary  consequence,  as  in  wharves,  sea  walls,  breakwaters, 
locks  and  dams,  and  in  tunnels,  abutments,  and  foundations  of 
bridges.  A  multitude  of  smaller  uses,  on  farms  and  in  dwellings 
and  factories,  aid  still  further  in  absorbing  the  output  of  the  ninety 
operating  cement  works  of  the  country. 

In  view  of  the  magnitude  which  the  industry  has  so  rapidly  at- 
tained, it  may  be  that  a  brief  explanation  of  the  process  of  manu- 
facture of  cement,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  tested  and  used, 
will  be  of  interest  to  the  members  of  the  Good  Roads  Association. 

Hydraulic  cements  are  materials  in  the  form  of  dry  powder, 
which,  when  mixed  with  water,  solidify  and  harden  to  a  stonelike 
mass. 

You  all  know  that  ordinary  lime  hardens  only  by  drying  out,  and 
remains  soft  if  kept  under  water.  The  Romans  found,  however, 
that  certain  kinds  of  volcanic  scoria,  called  "pozzuolana,"  had  the 
property  of  making  lime  hydraulic.  Mixtures  of  lime  and  pozzuo- 
lana were  therefore  used  by  the  Romans  in  important  engineering 
works,  many  of  which  are  in  good  preservation  to-day;  for  example, 
the  dome  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  a  monolithic  mass  of  concrete 
over  a  hundred  feet  in  diameter. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  found  that  blast  furnace  slag  acts  like 
a  pozzuolana,  and  slag  cements  have  been  made  on  a  considerable 
scale  by  simply  grinding  granulated  slag  with  slaked  lime. 

When  Smeaton  built  the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  off  the  coast  of 
England,  in  1756,  he  made  his  mortar  by  mixing  lime  and  Italian 
pozzuolana,  and  in  preparation  for  this  work  he  made  a  series  of 
experiments  to  determine  why  certain  kinds  of  lime  gave  better 
results  in  water  than  others.  He  found  that  limestone  which  on 
dissolving  in  acid  left  a  considerable  insoluble  residue  gave  lime 
of  the  best  water-hardening  quality,  and  identified  this  insoluble 
residue  as  clay,  thus  showing  that  the  combination  of  clay  and  lime, 
by  burning,  is  the  source  of  hydraulic  properties.  He  wrote  in  his 
journal :  "I  did  not  doubt  but  to  make  a  cement  that  would  equal 
the  best  merchantable  Portland  stone  in  solidity  and  durability." 
This  remark  of  Smeaton  is  often  quoted  as  the  probable  source  of 
the  term  "Portland  cement." 

Soon  after  the  publication  of  these  experiments,  at  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  manufacture  of  "Roman  cement"  was 
begun  in  England,  by  burning  calcareous  clay  nodules  found  on  the 
coast  of  Kent.  These  nodules  contain  carbonate  of  lime  mixed  with 
so  large  a  proportion  of  clay  that  after  calcination  they  do  not  slake 
with  water,  but  on  grinding  to  powder  they  form  a  quick-setting 
natural  cement.  The  calcination  must  be  carried  on  at  low  heat, 
as  at  higher  temperature  the  large  amount  of  clay  present  causes 


42  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

the  clinker  to  melt  to  a  slag,  which  has  no  cementing  properties. 
Similar  natural  cement  was  made  in  France  at  about  the  same  time, 
and  has  been  manufactured  on  a  great  scale  at  or  near  Louisville, 
Rosendale,  Milwaukee,  and  at  other  points  in  this  country.  Owing 
to  the  abundance,  cheapness,  and  superiority  of  Portland  cement, 
however,  the  manufacture  of  natural  cements  has  greatly  declined 
in  the  past  few  years,  and  is  now  comparatively  insignificant. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  the  last  century  the  importance  of  exact 
proportions  of  lime  and  clay,  to  produce  cement  of  highest  quality, 
gradually  became  realized,  and  in  1827  Aspdin  began  the  manu- 
facture in  England  of  "Portland  cement"  from  an  artificial  mixture 
of  lime  or  limestone  and  clay.  Other  makers  gradually  improved 
the  quality  of  the  product,  and  the  industry  became  an  important 
and  rapidly  increasing  one,  in  England  and  Germany,  from  about 
1850.  It  was  found  that  mixtures  containing  certain  proportions, 
usually  about  25  parts  clay  and  75  parts  carbonate  of  lime,  could  be 
burned  at  high  white  heat  without  melting,  and  on  grinding  the 
resulting  clinker,  a  sound,  slow-setting,  and  extremely  strong  ce- 
ment was  obtained.  Mixtures  higher  in  lime  yielded  cement  which 
swelled  and  cracked  with  water,  while  mixtures  higher  in  clay  fused 
and  lost  their  hydraulic  properties  at  high  temperature,  though  by 
burning  at  lower  heat  inferior,  quick-setting  cement,  similar  to 
natural  cement,  was  produced.  It  required  many  years  to  perfect 
the  chemical  control  of  the  mixture  and  to  develop  the  manufac- 
turing processes  of  raw  grinding  to  necessary  great  fineness,  burn- 
ing, and  grinding  of  the  finished  product,  to  the  point  of  produc- 
tion of  cement  of  uniform  and  high  quality.  Improvement  in  econo- 
my of  manufacture  and  quality  of  product  is,  in  fact,  still  going  on, 
though  at  the  leading  works  in  this  country  and  Europe  the  process 
has  been  brought  to  so  systematic  a  basis  that  further  improve- 
ments must  necessarily  be  slow  and  gradual. 

The  successful  manufacture  of  Portland  cement  began  in  this 
country  at  Coplay,  Pa.,  in  1878,  but  no  important  production  took 
place  until  after  1890.  Up  to  that  time  all  Portland  cement  was 
burned  in  vertical  kilns,  similar  to  lime  kilns.  This  process  re- 
quired the  raw  mixture  to  be  molded  into  bricks  and  dried  before 
burning,  and  the  economical  in  fuel  was  expensive  in  labor. 

With  the  high  rate  of  wa^es  in  this  country,  therefore,  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  could  hardly  compete  with  those  of  Europe.  A 
remedy  was  found  in  the  rotary  kiln  for  cement  burning,  which 
had  been  tried  in  England  in  1885,  but  abandoned.  This  consists 
of  a  revolving  steel  cylinder,  slightly  inclined  and  lined  with  fire 
brick,  heated  by  a  flame  entering  at  the  lower  end,  into  which  the 
powdered  cement  mixture  is  continually  fed  at  the  upper  end,  and 
in  its  passage  through  the  kiln  is  brought  to  a  white  heat  and  con- 
tinuously discharged  at  the  lower  end  as  well-burned  clinker.  The 
rotary  kiln  was  soon  brought  to  complete  success  in  this  country, 
and  with  crude  petroleum  as  fuel  proved  so  great  a  labor-saving 
device  that  cement  could  be  made  with  profit.  From  that  time  on 
the  industry  increased  with  great  speed.  Coal  dust  was  soon  sub- 
stituted for  crude  oil  as  fuel,  and  the  size  of  kilns  was  steadily  in- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  43 

creased,  from  5  or  6  by  60  feet,  to  the  present  usual  size  of  8  by  100 
or  120  feet.  At  two  Eastern  works,  in  fact,  kilns  12  by  230  feet  are 
now  being  built. 

We  may,  then,  classify  hydraulic  cements  as  follows: 

1.  Pozzuolana  or  slag  cement,  made  by  grinding  volcanic  scoria 
or  slag  with  dry  slaked  lime. 

2.  Natural  cement,  made  by  calcining  natural  limestone  contain- 
ing a  high  proportion  of  clay  at  low  heat,  and  grinding  the  calcined 
stone  to  powder. 

3.  Portland  cement,  made  from  an  artificial  mixture  of  limestone 
or  marl  with  clay  or  shale,  in  exactly  correct  proportions,  burning 
the  mixture  at  a  white  heat,  and  grinding  the  resulting  clinker  to 
powder. 

The  materials  from  which  Portland  cement  is  made  are : 

1.  Carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  form  of  limestone,  chalk,  or  marl; 

2.  Clay  or  shale. 

These  materials  are  found  in  abundance  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  only  important  requirements  as  to  composition 
are  that  the  stone  shall  be  nearly  free  from  magnesia  and  the  clay 
or  shale  relatively  high  in  silica.  In  some  localities,  notably  in  the 
Lehigh  valley,  in  Pennsylvania,  clay-bearing  limestones  of  nearly 
correct  composition  for  cement  are  found,  and  it  is  there  necessary 
only  to  select  the  strata  and  grind  them  together  in  the  right  pro- 
portion. If  stone  of  exactly  correct  composition  could  be  found, 
this  could  be  made  into  cement  clinker  by  simply  quarrying  and 
burning.  When  it  is  understood,  however,  that  a  variation  of  1 
per  cent,  in  carbonate  of  lime  from  the  correct  standard  is  sufficient 
to  spoil  the  resulting  cement,  it  will  be  realized  that  deposits  of 
such  exact  and  uniform  composition  are  not  to  be  expected  in  na- 
ture, and  that  it  is  in  all  cases  necessary  to  prepare  artificial  mix- 
tures to  obtain  the  result  desired.  In  most  parts  of  the  country, 
limestone,  more  or  less  pure,  and  clay  or  shale,  are  the  materials 
employed. 

The  process  of  manufacture  of  Portland  cement,  as  carried  on  at 
the  best  modern  plants,  will  now  be  briefly  described. 

The  stone  is  quarried,  crushed,  and  dried.  The  clay  or  shale  is 
dried  and  broken  up,  and  the  two  materials,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  chemist,  mixed  in  exactly  correct  proportions.  The  mixture 
is  then  ground  to  impalpable  powder,  usually  in  two  or  three  op- 
erations, in  ball  mills  and  tube  mills,  and  this  is  the  part  of  the 
process  requiring  the  greatest  amount  of  machinery  and  power, 
and  on  its  thoroughness  the  quality  of  the  product  largely  depends. 
Sound  cement  cannot,  generally,  be  made  by  burning  mixtures 
coarser  than  98  per  cent,  passing  a  sieve  of  100  meshes  to  the  linear 
inch.  A  plant  making  2,000  barrels  of  cement  per  day  uses  about 
600  tons,  daily,  of  raw  material,  and  it  will  be  appreciated  that  to 
grind  this  amount  of  hard  limestone  and  shale  to  the  fineness  of 
flour  is  a  serious  undertaking. 

The  prepared  raw  material  is  now  fed  into  the  revolving  kilns. 
These  are  heated  internally  to  a  white  heat  by  jets  of  coal  dust  and 
air,  blown  in  at  the  lower  end.  The  raw  material  as  it  passes 


44  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

through  the  kiln  is  gradually  heated  to  redness  and  balls  up  into 
little  rounded  masses.  These  become  white  hot  at  the  zone  of  high- 
est temperature,  and  are  finally  discharged  as  clinker,  which  on 
cooling  appears  like  fine  black  gravel  of  the  size  of  corn.  This 
clinker  now  goes  to  the  grinding  mill,  where  another  series  of  ball 
and  tube  mills  reduce  it  to  a  gray  powder,  of  such  fineness  that  92 
to  94  per  cent,  passes  a  100-mesh  sieve.  This  is  the  finished  Port- 
land cement. 

This  appears  to  be  a  simple  process,  and  yet  the  excellence  of  the 
product  depends  upon  the  close  observance  of  certain  rules  and 
precautions.  Good  Portland  cement  should  be  slow-setting ;  that  is, 
when  mixed  with  water  to  a  stiff  paste,  made  into  a  thin-edged  pat 
or  cake  on  a  piece  of  glass,  and  kept  under  a  damp  cloth,  it  should 
not  set,  so  as  not  to  be  marked -with  the  finger-nail,  in  less  than  two 
or  three  hours.  After  setting  it  should  increase  rapidly  in  hardness, 
and  within  twenty-four  hours  should  be  with  difficulty  scratched 
with  the  point  of  a  knife.  Such  a  pat,  kept  in  water  for  a  month, 
or  exposed  for  five  hours  to  steam  over  boiling  water,  should  still 
remain  hard,  and  show  no  sign  of  expansion  cracks  around  the 
edges.  If  the  pat  sets  within  a  few  minutes,  or  if  it  softens  in 
steam  or  water  and  shows  expansion  cracks,  the  cement  is  defect- 
ive, and  may  make  serious  trouble  in  use. 

Now,  let  me  tell  you,  in  a  few  words,  what  are  the  chief  errors  in 
the  process  of  manufacture  which  may  produce  the  defective  quality 
above  described. 

These  are : 

1.  Incorrect  proportions  of  lime  and  clay.  The  more  lime  a 
cement  contains,  up  to  a  certain  point,  provided  the  raw  grinding 
and  burning  are  properly  done,  the  better  and  stronger  it  will  be. 
This  point  may  be  determined  exactly,  from  analysis  of  the  mate- 
rials, by  certain  well-known  formulas,  and  the  problem  which  the 
cement  chemist  has  to  solve  is  to  keep  his  mixture  as  close  to  this 
lime  limit  as  possible,  without  ever  exceeding  it.  Even  one-half 
per  cent,  of  lime  more  than  this  limit  allows  will  make  the  cement 
unsound ;  that  is,  it  will  swell  and  crack  after  setting.  Such  cement 
would  be  highly  dangerous  to  use,  especially  as  its  expansion  may 
take  place  some  days  or  even  weeks  after  it  has  been  put  in  place 
in  a  bridge,  foundation,  or  building,  perhaps  causing  collapse  of  the 
structure.  Fortunately  the  cold  pat  test  in  water  for  28  days,  or 
the  boiling  test  in  steam  for  5  hours,  is  a  certain  means  of  detecting 
this  defect,  and  cement  which  passes  either  of  these  tests  may 
safely  be  considered  sound,  and  used  without  fear  in  the  most  crit- 
ical work.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  lime  in  the  mixture  is  too  low, 
perhaps  two  per  cent,  below  the  lime  limit,  the  cement  is  liable  to 
prove  quick-setting  and  low  in  strength.  Cement  chemists  gen- 
erally, therefore,  hold  their  mixtures  at  one-half  or  one  per  cent, 
below  the  limit,  and  at  well-conducted  factories  the  variation  in 
lime  will  hardly  exceed  one-fourth  per  cent,  either  way  from  the 
standard  chosen  as  correct. 

Lest  there  may  be  some  well-posted  cement  man  here  who  will 
think  I  am  speaking  too  positively  on  this  point,  I  will  qualify  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  45 

above  statements  by  saying  that  different  materials  vary  consid- 
erably in  amount  of  allowable  variation.  Clays  high  in  silica  and 
low  in  alumina  and  iron,  for  example,  permit  much  wider  variation 
in  proportion  of  lime  than  clays  of  more  aluminous  composition. 

To  explain  this  fully  would  take  us  further  into  the  domain  of 
cement  chemistry  than  you  would  have  patience  to  go  to-day. 

2.  Coarse  grinding  of  raw  material.     In  the  burning  of  cement 
mixtures,  .the   materials   are   not  fused,   but  merely   brought  at   a 
white  heat  to  a  sintered  or  softened  condition.     In  revolving  kilns, 
also,  the  passage  through  the  zone  of  high  heat  takes  place  in  15 
minutes  or  less.     It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  materials  must  be 
very  finely  divided,  in  order  that  each   particle  of  lime  may  find 
within  easy  reach  the  particle  of  clay  it  needs,  and  that  the  com- 
bination of  the  .two  materials  may  be  uniform  and  complete.     If 
coarsely  ground,  the  fine  particles  of  lime  will  combine  with  all 
the   clay,   producing   an   over-clayed   compound,   while    the   coarse 
particles  of  lime  remain  free,  and  give  rise  to  dangerous  expansion. 
A  coarsely  ground  mix  will  therefore  yield  cement  having,  at  the 
same  time,  the  faults   of  that  made  from  an   over-clayed   and   an 
over-limed  mixture ;    that  is,  it   may  be   quick-setting,   weak,   and 
unsound.     It  may  safely  be  said  that  imperfect  grinding  of  raw  ma- 
terial is  the  source  of  more  faulty  cement  than  all  other  causes  com- 
bined. 

3.  Imperfect  burning.     Well-burned  clinker  is  black,  hard,  and 
glistening;     underburned    clinker    is    brownish    and    comparatively 
soft.     Underburning  may  make  cement  quick-setting  and  unsound. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  this  fault  is  of  rare  occurrence,  and 
that  correctly  proportioned  and  well-ground  raw  material  may  be 
light-burned  without  injury  to  quality. 

4.  Imperfect   final    grinding.      Coarsely   ground   cement   may   be 
slow  in  hardening  and  show  low  strength,  especially  when  mixed 
with  sand.     Fine  grinding  increases  the  sand-carrying  capacity  of 
cement,   and    improves    its    strength,    especially   at   short   periods. 
There  is  such  a  thing,  however,  as  grinding  cement  too  fine,  and  thus 
making  it  quick-setting,  and  causing  it  to  gain  strength  too  rapidly. 

Engineers  generally  require  a  gradual  increase  of  strength,  and 
look  suspiciously  on  cement  which  does  not  show  a  good  gain  be- 
tween seven  and  twenty-eight  days.  This  requirement  is  difficult 
to  meet  with  extreme  fineness  of  grinding,  as  a  very  finely  ground 
cement  may  gain  practically  its  whole  strength  within  seven  days 
or  less.  The  usual  requirement  of  92  per  cent,  passing  a  100-mesh 
sieve  is  a  reasonable  one,  and  the  best  brands  generally  exceed  this 
figure  by  one  or  two  per  cent. 

To  resume,  badness  of  cement  is  generally  caused  by  imperfect 
mixing  and  grinding  of  the  raw  material  before  burning,  less  often 
by  incorrect  proportions  of  raw  materials,  and  rarely  by  imperfect 
burning  or  final  grinding. 

The  testing  of  cement  can,  of  course,  be  completely  carried  out 
only  in  well-equipped  laboratories.  A  few  years  ago  there  was 
little  uniformity  and  much  confusion  in  methods  of  testing;  but 
the  labors  of  the  Committee  on  Uniform  Tests  of  Cement,  of  the 


46  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  have  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  well-defined  rules  and  methods  which  are  now  closely 
followed  by  engineers  throughout  the  country.  The  report  of  this 
committee,  and  also  the  Standard  Specifications  for  cement,  estab- 
lished by  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  have  been 
published  in  pamphlet  form  by  the  Association  of  Portland  Cement 
Manufacturers  (Land  Title  Bldg.,  Philadelphia),  and  will  be  gladly 
mailed  on  request. 

The  ordinary  tests  are  the  determinations  of  fineness,  time  of 
setting,  soundness  or  constancy  of  volume,  and  strength.  The  first 
three  tests  have  been  briefly  described  in  the  foregoing.  Strength 
is  determined  by  making  briquettes  of  neat  cement,  or  cement  and 
sand,  one  to  three,  one  square  inch  in  smallest  section,  and,  after 
hardening  one  day  in  moist  air  and  the  remaining  time  in  water, 
these  are  pulled  apart  at  7  days,  28  days,  and  longer  periods,  by 
means  of  a  simple  testing  machine.  Good  cement  will  generally 
show,  tested  neat,  300  pounds,  in  one  day,  600  pounds  in  7  days, 
and  700  to  800  pounds  in  28  days;  and  with  three  parts  standard 
sand  at  least  200  pounds  in  7  days  and  300  pounds  in  28  days. 
Compression  tests, .by  pressing  cubes  of  cement  or  concrete  in  mas- 
sive crushing  machines,  are  also  made  in  well-equipped  labora- 
tories, but  are  not  generally  necessary  to  determine  acceptance  or 
rejection,  as  it  is  well  known  that  good  Portland  cement  will  gen- 
erally show  a  resistance  to  compression  about  ten  times  greater 
than  its  tensile  strength. 

A  few  words,  in  closing,  on  the  rational  use  of  cement.  Pure 
or  neat  cement  is  almost  never  used,  and  to  give  useful  results 
admixture  with  sand  and  gravel  or  broken  stone  is  necessary. 
Sand  alone  is  a  very  poor  material  to  mix  with  cement.  With  three 
parts  sand  a  strength  of  perhaps  200  pounds  may  be  expected,  while 
with  three  parts  good  gravel,  ranging  from  coarse  pebbles  down  to 
sand,  the  strength  will  often  reach  600  pounds.  Materials  should  be 
so  chosen  that  the  voids  will  be  filled  as  completely  as  possible, 
to  yield  a  mass  of  greatest  possible  density.  Ordinarily,  concrete 
is  made  of  one  part  cement,  two  to  three  parts  sand,  and  four  to 
six  parts  coarse  gravel  or  broken  stone.  The  amount  of  water 
used  should  be  such  as  to  give  a  soft,  plastic  mixture,  which  will 
quake  when  rammed,  like  a  jelly.  Mixtures  made  too  dry  will 
always  be  soft,  earthy,  and  rotten,  and  no  subsequent  wetting  of 
the  concrete  will  materially  help  matters.  This  fault  is  often  seen 
in  hollow  concrete  building  blocks.  To  give  good  results  these 
must  be  made  as  wet  as  possible,  up  to  the  point  at  which  the 
mixture  begins  to  stick  to  the  plates  or  to  sag  out  of  shape  on  re- 
moving "from  the  molds. 

Thorough  mixing  is  essential,  to  develop  the  full  strength  of  con- 
crete. This  is  difficult  to  accomplish  by  hand  labor  and  almost 
certain  to  be  slighted,  except  when  under  the  eye  of  the  foreman. 
There  are  many  excellent  concrete  mixers  on  the  market,  which 
save  greatly  in  labor  and  give  strengths  practically  equal  to  those 
which  can  be  obtained  on  a  small  scale  in  the  laboratory. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  47 

It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  cement  hardens  by  com- 
bining with  water  and  crystallizing.  As  soon  as  the  work  dries 
out,  therefore,  the  hardening  ceases.  Concrete  must  be  kept  moist 
until  thoroughly  hardened.  Too  rapid  drying  out  of  the  surface  is 
also  the  most  frequent  cause  of  shrinkage  cracks. 

The  question  of  the  use  of  concrete  for  street  and  road  pave- 
ments has  been  widely  discussed,  and  there  are  already  many  ex- 
amples of  successful  concrete  pavements  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  This  subject  was  fully  discussed  in  papers  read  before 
the  Association  of  Cement  Manufacturers  at  Philadelphia  .two 
years  ago  by  Mr.  H.  L.  Weber,  Chief  Engineer  of  Ft.  Wayne  Trac- 
tion Company,  Ft.  Wayne,  Ind.,  and  Mr.  Walter  Hassam,  Manager 
Hassam  Paving  Company,  Worcester,  Mass.  Bulletin  No.  14,  pub- 
lished by  the  Association,  containing  these  papers  and  discussion, 
is  now  out  of  print,  but  it  is  hoped  that  a  new  edition  will  soon  be 
published.  The  Association's  Committee  on  "New  Uses"  lately 
offered  prizes  for  best  papers  on  concrete  roadways,  through  the 
agency  and  by  the  help  of  the  Good  Roads  Magazine,  and  the 
two  papers  selected  for  prizes  will  soon  be  published  in  that  Jour- 
nal. The  May  number  of  the  Concrete  Review,  published  by  the 
Association  of  Cement  Manufacturers,  which  has  been  delayed  in 
publication,  will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  concrete  roadways. 

The  sum  of  all  the  evidence  on  this  question  seems  to  be  that 
concrete  pavements,  if  properly  made  and  of  suitable  material,  are 
low  in  cost  and  of  excellent  wearing  qualities.  There  is  in  cement 
a  quality  of  toughness  and  resistance  to  wear  which  is  superior  to 
stone  or  brick.  This  is  shown  in  the  great  superiority  of  cement 
sidewalks  over  flagstone,  in  point  of  durability.  I  have  seen  cement 
patches  on  flagstone  walks,  around  which  the  stone  has  worn  away 
to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  while  the  trowel  marks  on  the  cement  sur- 
face are  still  visible.  A  well-laid  macadam  road  is  fairly  durable. 
Does  it  not  stand  to  reason  that  if  the  broken  stone  and  sand  or 
gravel,  of  which  the  surface  is  composed,  were  held  together  by-  a 
small  amount  of  cement,  the  life  of  the  road  would  be  greatly  in- 
creased? Here,  however,  comes  the  question  of  the  wearing  quality 
of  the  broken  stone  itself.  Limestone  is  soon  ground  up  under 
heavy  traffic,  and  blows  away  in  dust.  To  show  resistance  to  wear 
equal  to  that  of  the  cement  binding  material,  the  aggregate  should 
be  a  hard,  tough  substance,  such  as  quartz  gravel  or  crushed  trap 
rock.  Where  such  materials  are  to  be  had  at  reasonable  cost,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  cement  pavements  can  be  laid,  at  a  cost  of  75 
cents  to  $1  per  square  yard,  which  will  last  longer  and  require  less 
repairs  than  paving  brick  or  stone.  If  Portland  cement  can  play 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  good  roads  in  our  country, 
it  will  certainly  be  a  ground  for  pride  on  the  part  of  all  those  who 
are  connected  with  its  manufacture. 


48  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

The  reading  of  this  paper  was  followed  by  considerable  discus- 
sion. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill :  I  would  ask  Mr.  Powers  if  he  knows  any  place 
where  pavement  of  that  character  is  to  be  seen. 

Mr.  Powers:    The  Speedway  on  Long  Island. 

Mr.  Lancaster:  This  was  made  of  concrete  reinforced.  I  think  the 
construction  of  that  road  was  entirely  for  automobile  purposes,  and 
not  with  the  idea  that  it  would  be  used  for  any  other  kind  of  traffic. 
For  that  purpose  it  is  doubtless  well  suited,  but  for  general  traffic  I, 
personally,  do  not  believe  it  would  wear  well. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  So  far  as  this  concrete  Speedway  on  Long 
Island  is  concerned,  it  was  definitely  stated  that  it  was  not  expected  it 
would  withstand  the  impact  of  horses'  feet,  but  was  to  give  the  partic- 
ular surface  which  would  hold  the  automobile.  The  road  is  exception- 
ally well  suited  for  a  speedway  for  automobiles,  but  I  would  not 
expect  it  to  stand  the  impact  of  the  horses'  feet.  There  are  a  few 
streets  in  Chicago  of  granitoid  pavement  which  are  said  to  wear  well. 
I  have  been  unfortunate  not  to  have  seen  a  good  section.  Possibly 
there  is  some  one  present  who  has. 

Mr.  Fowler:  You  all  seem  to  be  opposed  to  a  concrete  pavement, 
and  in  the  absence  of  defenders  I  want  to  say,  in  connection  with  a 
road  built  about  twelve  years  ago,  that  the  Knoxville  Bridge  road- 
way, 40  feet  in  width,  was  finished  with  a  cement  wearing  surface  and 
lasted  very  well  indeed  for  city  traffic  of  all  kinds,  and  it  was  only  a 
year  or  so  ago  that  it  was  necessary  to  let  a  contract  for  resurfacing, 
so  I  know  of  a  third  of  a  mile  of  concrete  pavement  which  has  stood 
very  well  for  about  twelve  years. 

Mr.  Eldredge :  In  Washington  we  have  a  pavement  about  a  mile  in 
length,  which  was  built  of  concrete.  The  pavement  was  built  about 
three  years  ago,  I  believe,  and  I  saw  it  very  recently,  and  it  does  not 
show  up  very  well.  The  particular  trouble  seems  to  be  with  the  ex- 
pansion joints.  Wherever  they  were  placed  the  pavement  has  gone  to 
pieces,  and  there  are  places  where  there  are  holes  in  the  pavement  as 
wide  as  two  or  three  feet  at  the  expansion  joints.  That  is  an  exceed- 
ingly heavy  traffic  road,  possibly  a  thousand  wagons  every  day,  the 
heaviest  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  for  that  reason  the  War  E^e- 
partment  hoped  to  build  a  successful  road  that  would  stand,  but  so 
far  it  has  not  proved  entirely  satisfactory. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  49 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  have  a  piece  in  mind,  the  only  piece  I  have 
found  in  this  country  of  that  character,  and  1  have  found  it  very 
unsatisfactory.  The  wear  at  the  different  sides  of  that  street  is  not 
uniform. 

Mr.  Morrison:  There  is  mention  made  in  the  paper  of  the  Has- 
sam  pavement.  If  I  understand  it,  there  have  been  several  experi- 
ments made  in  this  city  by  the  Hassam  people,  and  perhaps  it 
would  be  well  for  Mr.  Thomson  to  give  us  an  account  of  this. 

Mr.  Thomson:  We  have  two  or  three  experimental  sections  of 
the  Hassam  pavement  in  the  city.  Probably  there  is  1,200  feet 
constructed  in  the  residential  district.  This  has  been  in  service  about 
eighteen  months,  and  only  about  two  wagons  pass  daily  over  the 
pavement,  and  it  is  in  perfect  condition,  and  at  this  rate  of  travel  I 
think  will  last  a  lifetime.  On  Westlake  avenue  there  is  about  100  feet 
of  Hassam  pavement.  Part  is  in  excellent  condition;  but  it  has  re- 
quired to  have  very  considerable  repair.  It  has  been  in  about  two  years. 
As  to  the  relative  cost,  there  is  very  little  difference  between  the  cost 
of  that  and  our  asphalt  pavement  in  the  city;  probably  it  is  80 
per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  asphalt.  We  are  under  this  difficulty :  That 
we  have  not  any  great  supply  of  good  stone  for  macadam  of  any 
kind  close  at  hand,  and  the  cost  of  delivery  is  a  very  considerable 
expense,  and  it  ic  much  more  here  than  many  other  cities.  We  have 
to  bring  our  stone  from  quite  a  distance. 

Mr.  Lancaster:  I  would  like  to  qualify  what  I  said  about  not 
being  favorable  to  concrete  pavement,  by  saying  that  I  do  not  be- 
lieve it  can  be  economically  repaired.  I  think  that  is  one  of  the  troubles 
Mr.  Thomson  has  spoken  of ;  that  while  it  has  been  used  quite  exten- 
sively in  some  of  the  Eastern  cities,  the  fact  that  these  expansion 
joints  cannot  be  repaired  easily  is  against  it.  Another  feature  is 
that,  in  driving  horses  over  it,  it  is  absolutely  unyielding,  and  is  in- 
jurious to  a  horse.  There  is  no  yielding  of  any  kind  whatever,  and 
it  is  rather  hard  on  the  horses  that  are  driven  over  it.  This  Blome 
pavement  is  a  new  one,  and  is  being  used  to  some  extent  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chicago,  and  I  understand  some  of  it  is  being  put  in  in 
Walla  Walla,  in  this  state. 

Mr.  Powers :  W^ith  a  view  to  getting  some  form  of  concrete 
pavement,  some  manufacturers  offered  prizes  for  the  best  paper  on 
that  form  of  roadway,  and  they  asked  us  to  publish  the  papers. 


50  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

The  Long  Island  Parkway  is  one  of  the  most  noted  of  these  roads, 
and  that  I  understand  has  been  averagely  successful.  Understand, 
I  am  not  defending  the  concrete  more  than  any  other;  but  I  have 
understood  that  it  has  been  successful  from  the  automobilist's 
standpoint.  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  the  road  builder's  opinion 
of  it.  Mr.  Ross,  the  city  engineer  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  has,  I  under- 
stand built  a  road  of  concrete  and  found  it  serviceable,  and  he  did 
tell  me  personally  he  was  quite  well  pleased  with  it  so  far. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  What  Mr.  Powers  says  is  true  writh  regard  to 
the  Long  Island  pavement.  Mr.  Lancaster  and  I  had  the  pleasure 
of  seeing  it  with  Mr.  Vanderbilt,  who  built  it,  and  we  drove  over 
it  in  an  automobile.  It  is  not  suited  for  use  on  public  highways. 

Mr.  Fuller:  I  wrote  to  the  city  engineers  of  a  number  of  the 
New  England  states,  and  received  replies  from  them  to  the  effect 
that  the  Hassam  pavement  was  being  laid  to  rather  a  great  extent, 
that  it  was  satisfactory  as  far  as  they  had  been  able  to  tell  within 
their  experience  of  two  or  three  years,  that  it  was  easily  repaired, 
and  the  general  impression  I  got  was  that  the  Hassam  pavement 
was  going  to  be  laid  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  had  been.  I 
have  been  unable  to  learn  anything  definite  as  to  what  has  been 
done  during  the  last  two  years.  If  there  is  any  one  here  that  can 
enlighten  us,  I  would  be  pleased. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:     We  will  call  on  Mr.  Thomson. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  I  do  not  think  there  has  been  any  advance 
or  improvement  in  the  production  of  Hassam  pavement.  The  owner 
of  the  patents  himself  does  not  claim  any  great  advance  has  been 
made.  He  claimed  he  was  experimenting  with  a  new  type  of 
binder,  which,  instead  of  being  rigid,  as  Portland  cement,  and 
destroyed  whenever  broken,  was  slightly  plastic  and  would  rebound 
under  traffic,  and  he  hoped  soon  to  bring  that  type  of  pavement 
under  notice.  I  have  seen  no  notice  of  it.  Perhaps  he  has  intro- 
duced it  somewhere,  I  do  not  know. 

Mr.  Landes:  I  am  disappointed  in  what  has  been  said  in  regard 
to  the  Hassam  pavement,  for  I  am  interested  in  local  conditions, 
and  have  been  interested  in  the  experiments  of  the  Hassam  pave- 
ment here,  and  I  think  Mr.  Thomson  will  bear  me  out  in  saying  that 
the  man  who  undertook  to  lay  the  Hassam  pavement  here  was  not 
practical  in  his  doing,  and  undertook  to  lay  it  on  ground  where  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  51 

asphalt  would  not  lie  on  account  of  being  soft,  and  he  did  not  have 
the  right  tools,  and  was  obliged  to  use  the  wrong  rollers,  etc.,  and 
could  not  mix  it  as  it  should  be. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  From  my  observation,  the  difficulty  with  the 
Hassam  pavement  on  Westlake  Avenue,  does  not  result  from  the 
causes  mentioned  by  Prof.  Landes,  but  results  principally  from  the 
inferior  quality  of  the  stone  used.  The  stone,  upon  examination,  has 
been  found  to  be  very  much  softer  than  the  mortar  in  which  it  is  em- 
bedded and  very  soluble.  In  addition  to  that,  the  stone  is  very  unequal 
in  its  texture.  As  a  result,  when  any  one  of  these  stones  is  crushed 
from  any  reason,  there  has  been  left  a  small  hole  in  the  pavement,  and 
the  impact  of  the  horses'  feet  passing  over  in  a  short  time  produces  a 
pocket  of  considerable  size.  The  inferiority  of  the  stone  has  unques- 
tionably had  more  to  do  with  the  failure  of  this  pavement  than  any 
other  cause,  so  far  as  I  am  able  to  determine,  and  for  that  reason  we 
cannot  regard  the  results  obtained  by  the  experiment  on  Westlake  Ave- 
nue as  being  fair  to  the  Hassam  people.  My  objections  to  concrete 
pavements  in  general  are  these :  First,  such  pavement  is  very  hard  on 
horses,  because  of  its  unyielding  surface.  Second,  where  the  stone  and 
the  mortar  are  of  equal  hardness,  they  wear  very  smooth  and  afford 
but  moderate  foothold.  Third,  when  any  crack  or  crevice  is  made  by 
any  means  whatever,  it  affords  an  initial  point  for  ravelling  and  pocket- 
ing. Fourth,  it  is  very  difficult  to  patch  these  pocketed  places  so  as  to 
obtain  a  uniform  bond  and  maintain  a  uniform  surface. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill  announced  that  there  would  be  a  most  interest- 
ing  session   on   Tuesday,   and   the   further   proceedings   were   ad- 
journed until  the  following  day  at  9  :30  a.  m. 
M.R.B.— 5 


52  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


TUESDAY,  JULY  6™,  AT  9:30  A.M. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STONE  SUITED  FOR  USE  AS 
MACADAM  OR  FOR  PAVING  BLOCKS. 

The  first  paper  read  at  the  morning  session  was  by  Professor 
Henry  Landes,  of  the  University  of  Washington,  on  the  above  sub- 
ject, and  was  as  follows : 

PAPER  BY  PROF.  HENRY  LANDES. 

In  the  making  of  the  best  roads  of  a  permanent  character,  a  large 
number  of  factors  must  enter.  Such  roads  are  the  results  of  many 
years  of  experience,  and  necessarily  involve  engineering  skill  of  a 
high  order.  Without  enumerating  all  of  the  elements  of  success, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  our  best  roads  can  be  had  only  by  the  fulfill- 
ment of  at  least  these  requirements : 

1.  Selection  of  a  proper  gradient. 

2.  Good  drainage  of  the  roadbeds. 

3.  Use  of  first-class  stone  in  construction. 

4.  Highest  engineering  skill  at  every  stage. 

5.  Continued  maintenance  and  persistent  care. 

Of  the  above  essentials  my  topic  has  to  deal  only  with  the  stone 
which  may  be  used,  and  in  the  selection  of  such  material,  suitable 
for  macadam  or  paving,  the  chief  considerations  are  these : 

1.  The  quality  of  the  rock,  or  its  inherent  ability  to  withstand 
every  test  which  any  kind  of  traffic  upon  the  road  might  demand. 

2.  The  accessibility  of  the  stone,  which  determines  the  cost  at 
which  it  may  be  delivered  to  the  points  where  needed. 

3.  Demands    of   the   particular   road,   taking   into    account   such 
things  as  the  nature  of  the  traffic  and  the  characteristics   of  the 
climate. 

The  principal  qualities  desired  in  stone  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  Hardness,  or  the  resistance  offered  to  any  abrading  action. 
This  quality  is  determined  largely  by  the  hardness  of  the  individual 
minerals  composing  the  stone. 

2.  Toughness,  or  the  coherency  among  the  individual   particles 
of  the  stone,  which  holds   the  mass  together,   when  struck   by  a 
hammer,  a  hoof,  or  a  wheel. 

3.  Cementing  power,  or  the  natural  binding  qualities  possessed 
by  the  crushed  rock,  whereby  it  holds  together  firmly  when  moisten- 
ed and  rolled.    This  quality  is  particularly  desired  in  stone  for  mac- 
adam purposes,  although  it  is  helpful  in  paving  blocks  as  well.     It 
is  probable  that  in  the  future  the  relative  value  of  this  quality  will 
decline  with  the  increasing  use  of  cementing  substances  of  an  arti- 
ficial character. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  53 

In  determining  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  above  qualities  in 
a  stone,  the  following  three  classes  of  tests  may  be  employed : 

1.  Practical  use  of  the  stone  in  a  road  for  a  term  of  years.     Since 
the  best  tests  are  always   made   in   the  laboratory   of  experience, 
long-continued  successful  use  of  a  stone  affords  the  only  test  which 
may  be  regarded  as  final.    The  older  a  community  may  be,  the  more 
this  test  may  be  relied  upon ;    but  manifestly  the  practical  use  of 
the  stone  cannot  be  utilized  in  the  building  of  roads  in  a  state  as 
young  as  Washington. 

2.  Observations  on  the  stone  at  its  natural  outcrops,  with  regard 
to  its  resistance  to  weathering  and  erosion,  behavior  under  frost 
action,  binding  qualities  of  the  resultant  subsoil,  etc.     This  test  is 
one  very  commonly  depended  upon,  and  when  applied  with  intelli- 
gence will  yield  valuable  results. 

3.  Laboratory  tests  and  _  experiments,  approaching  actual  condi- 
tions as  far  as  possible.     The  difficulties  here  are  those  attendant 
upon  such  vast  differences  in  the  scale  of  operations,  and  upon  the 
impossibility  of  attaining  in   the   laboratory  conditions   similar  to 
those  of  a  highway.    The  results  of  these  tests  can  only  be  regarded 
as  approximate,  and  never  as  wholly  conclusive. 

In  all  tests  or  observations  made  upon  a  stone  to  determine  its 
qualities  necessary  for  road  purposes  the  following  analysis  seems 
desirable : 

1.  The   minerals  present;    kinds  and  relative  amounts  of   each, 
with  such  physical  characteristics  as  hardness,  cleavage,  and  specific 
gravity.     When  one  considers  that  a  rock  is  but  an  aggregate  of 
minerals,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  character  of  the  rock  is  de- 
termined by  its  mineral  ingredients. 

2.  Chemical  nature  of  the  rock,  particularly  in  regard  to  solubil- 
ity.    Solubility  is  at  once  both  an  advantage  and  a  disadvantage. 
A  moderate  degree  of  solubility,  when  precipitation  of  the  soluble 
portion  takes  place  within  the  crushed  rock,  yields  marked  binding 
qualities.     A  high  degree  of  solubility  speedily  weakens  the  stone 
and  renders  it  unfit  for  road  use. 

3.  Coherency  of  the  rock.     In  igneous  rocks  the  coherency  de- 
pends  upon   the    extent   of   interlocking   of   the    crystals,   while    in 
sedimentary  rocks  it  depends  upon  the  degree  of  cementation  of 
the  grains.     The  coherency  of  a  stone   gives   rise  to  the  quality 
known  as  toughness,  which  is  a  necessary  attribute  of  any  stone 
designed  for  highway  purposes. 

4.  Porosity;    a  characteristic   due   to  pores  among  the   original 
water-worn  fragments  of  a  sedimentary  rock,  or  to  steam  holes  in 
an  igneous  rock,  caused  by  an  original  overplus  of  water.     In  gen- 
eral, as  the  degree  of  porosity  of  a  stone  increases,  its  value  for 
road  purposes  decreases,  because  of  a  decline  in  its  specific  gravity, 
a  lowering  of  its  crushing  strength,  and  a  greater  liability  to  the 
disruption  of  the  road  by  frost  action. 

5.  Texture,  or  the  size  of  grain  which  composes  the  rock.    As  the 
size  of  grain  increases,  especially  when  the  stone  is  made  up  of  min- 
erals widely  different  in  their  coefficients  of  expansion,  the  stone 
is  more  readily  disrupted  through  expansion  and  contraction.    This 


54  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

would   happen   particularly   in   a   region   where    rapid   changes   of 
temperature  were  common. 

6.  Fracture,  or  the  appearance  of  a  broken  surface  of  the  stone. 
Of  the  several  fractures  the  conchoidal,  which  characterizes  basalt, 
is  the  one  most  helpful  in  increasing  the  binding  qualities  of  crushed 
rock.    In  paving  blocks,  the  cubical  fracture  is  the  one  yielding  most 
economy  in  the  preparation  of  the  stone. 

7.  Joints,  or  the  natural  breaks  possessed  by  the  stone.    They  are 
generally  in  excess  at  the  surface,  and  decrease  with  depth.    When 
they  occur  with  proper  frequency,  they  are  helpful  in  lowering  the 
cost  of  quarrying  the  stone  for  crushing,  but  if  too  frequent  may  be 
detrimental,  when  the  stone  is  desired  for  paving  blocks. 

In  applying  the  principles  above  set  forth,  and  in  searching  for 
"the  everlasting  better,"  we  might  say,  in  conclusion,  that  the 
ideal  stone  as  road  metal  should  possess  these  characteristics : 

A  mineral  composition  insuring  sufficient  hardness  for  complete 
resistance  to  any  reasonable  load ;  a  chemical  composition  affording 
soluble  ingredients  only  to  assist  cementation ;  a  coherency  giving 
the  stone  such  a  degree  of  toughness  that  only  enough  breakage 
will  occur  to  give  the  road  a  maximum  smoothness ;  a  porosity  of 
the  least  degree ;  a  texture  such  'that  the  grains  or  crystals  will  be 
of  microscopic  dimensions ;  a  fracture  yielding  conchoidal  surfaces 
and  sharp  edges ;  and  no  more  jointing  than  that  necessary  to  en- 
able quarry  operations  to  be  conducted  at  the  least  expense. 

It  may  be  said  that  no  stone  possessing  all  these  qualities  can 
ever  be  found.  While  this  statement  may  be  true,  it  does  not  re- 
lease us  from  the  obligation  to  select  that  stone  which  holds  these 
virtues  in  the  largest  degree.  If  I  may  speak  of  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington, I  will  say  that  we  have  stone  which  we  believe  will  fulfill 
the  most  rigorous  requirements  as  road  metal,  and  it  is  our  ambi- 
tion at  some  succeeding  Congress  to  show  such  results  in  the  way 
of  macadam  roads  that  you  will  assure  us  that  by  our  good  works 
we  shall  be  known. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson :  I  would  like  to  ask  Professor  Landes  if  he 
has  found  any  sandstone  which  he  believes  fulfills  the  requirements 
for  macadam  or  paving  blocks  which  is  in  reach  of  Seattle. 

Professor  Landes:  I  would  like  to  say  that,  as  far  as  paving 
block  is  concerned,  Mr.  Thomson  is  my  master  in  that  respect.  I 
yield  to  him.  As  far  as  macadam  is  concerned,  the  only  thing  in 
the  nature  of  a  sandstone  that  seems  desirable  to  use  is  one  that 
is  technically  not  a  sandstone,  but  has  passed  to  the  succeeding 
stage,  and  is  therefore  much  harder  and  more  durable  than  a  sand- 
stone. We  have  found  rock  of  this  character  that  will  be  service- 
able. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  55 

Mr.  Thomson:  I  will  say  we  do  not  claim  to  have  mastered  the 
sandstone  paving  block  yet.  We  use  the  best  we  can  get,  but  when 
we  can  get  a  better  the  city  will  welcome  it. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill :  We  believe  we  have  found  a  Superior  sandstone 
in  the  state  of  Washington,  an  analysis  of  which  is  being  made  by  Pro- 
fessor Landes.  The  stone  has  a  crushing  strength  almost  equal  and 
identical  with  Quincy  granite,  being  21,000  pounds  per  cubic  inch.  It 
is  about  96  plus  pure  silica. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  now  have  great  pleasure  in  presenting  to  you 
Mr.  Campbell,  whose  reputation  is  known  to  you  all.  We  are  very  for- 
tunate in  having  him  with  us  to-day.  I  have  tried  to  get  him  before, 
and  I  now  have  the  greatest  pleasure  in  introducing  Mr.  A.  W.  Camp- 
bell, of  the  province  of  Ontario  and  city  of  Toronto. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Campbell  was  down  on  the  programme  to  give  a  paper 
on  "Successful  Macadam  Roadways  with  Clay  and  Stone  Binder," 
but  instead  gave  a  most  valuable  and  interesting  extemporaneous 
address  on  the  system  of  road  building  in  the  province  of  Ontario. 
Mr.  Hill,  however,  secured  a  copy  of  Mr.  Campbell's  paper,  which  will 
be  incorporated  in  this  report. 

Mr.  Campbell,  who  was  received  with  cheers,  said: 

I  consider  myself  very  fortunate  to  have  been  selected  as  one  to 
represent  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  province  of  Ontario  at  this 
Congress  of  Road  Builders,  and  I  am  delighted  to  be  here  with  you 
to-day.  It  is  not  the  first  time  I  have  had  the  privilege  of  attending 
such  a  conference  and  of  having  heard  valuable  papers  read,  which 
have  been  of  great  benefit  to  me  in  my  work. 

The  subject  assigned  to  me  is  one  of  a  somewhat  technical  char- 
acter, but  along  the  line  of  the  paper  just  read.  It  does  seem  as  if 
the  experience  of  the  American  continent,  extending  over  the  last 
few  years,  has  reduced  the  question  of  stone  roads  to  almost  a 
science,  which  is  understood  now  by  most  engineers,  and  there  are 
very  few  points  upon  which  we  differ.  To  prepare  the  material  and 
to  lay  it  in  a  practical  way  are  questions  which  we  have  to  consider 
in  connection  with  the  varying  conditions  of  climate,  of  soil,  etc., 
and  very  often,  while  we  have  an  ideal  stone  found  within  a  state, 
we  find  it  is  more  economical  to  use  less  valuable  material,  because 
of  its  being  more  accessible.  However,  I  think  that  as  a  general  thing 
engineers  are  reaching  the  conclusion  that  the  principles  of  stone 
road  making  or  how  stone  roads  should  be  made  to  withstand  the 
climate  on  this  continent  are  to  be  yet  established.  How  to  prepare 
the  public  mind  for  going  into  a  scheme  of  financing  the  making  of 
stone  roads,  or  roads  of  better  aualitv,  seems  to  me  to  be  the  ques- 


56  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

tion  of  greatest  importance,  and  one  which  I  think  must  in  the  first 
place  precede  the  actual  specifications  of  how  a  road  should  be  made. 

A  few  years  ago,  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  the  Government  es- 
tablished a  Bureau  of  Highways  in  connection  with  the  Department 
of  Public  Works,  and  it  is  the  mission  of  that  department  to  go 
about  meeting  with  the  rate  payers  in  every  town  and  village  and 
township  and  municipality,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  with  them 
what  system  they  should  employ  for  the  raising  of  the  money  and 
the  performing  of  the  work.  In  the  province  of  Ontario,  our  munic- 
ipal government  consists  of  township  councils  and  county  councils. 
Our  province  is  divided  into  townships,  consisting  of  about  10'  miles 
square.  These  are  grouped  into  counties,  comprising  from  6  to  12 
townships,  and  the  county  council  is  composed  of  representatives 
trom  the  township  councils.  Up  to  a  few  years  ago,  the  roads  in  each 
township  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  township  council,  and 
they  had  charge  of  these  roads.  The  roads  were  made  and  main- 
tained by  what  we  call  a  labor  tax,  or  statutory  labor  tax — so  many 
days  of  labor  taxed  against  the  holding  according  to  the  assessed 
value  of  each.  These  men  were  supposed  to  turn  out  and  perform 
such  work  as  they  were  directed  to  perform  by  the  overseers  or 
pathmasters  or  road  commissioners.  In  the  early  days,  when  labor 
was  plentiful  and  money  was  scarce,  the  farmers  had  days  instead 
of  dollars,  and  this  tax  was  imposed  and  worked  pretty  successfully. 
The  people  united  themselves  in  large  gangs,  and  were  usually  di- 
rected by  the  most  capable  of  their  number.  This  seemed  to  be 
sufficient  to  clear  the  road  allowances  of  timber,  and  take  out  the 
stumps,  and  strengthen  the  weak  spots,  and  all  that  sort  of  thing ; 
but  we  have  passed  that  stage  now,  and  have  come  to  the  stage 
when  some  better  class  of  work  is  necessary.  We  must  look  after 
the  hardening  of  the  surface  of  these  roads,  and  must  gather  this 
labor  together  and  direct  it  in  the  selection  of  the  material,  in  the 
assembling  of  the  material,  in  the  crushing  of  the  material,  and  in 
preparing  it  and  applying  it  to  the  road ;  and  we  then  find  that  that 
labor  tax  is  incompetent,  incapable,  and  practically  useless,  so  far 
as  the  balance  of  the  work  on  our  roads  is  concerned,  and  conse- 
quently it  is  necessary  to  create  throughout  our  province  an  agita- 
tion showing  the  people  where  their  labor  was  being  pretty  largely 
wasted ;  for  all  that  it  was  possible  for  them  to  do  was  to  fill  in  the 
ruts  and  depressions  in  the  earth  roads,  and  the  repair  was  of  very 
little  substantial  value,  having  to  be  repeated  each  year,  and  con- 
sequently they  were  making  very  little  progress,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  a  great  deal  of  labor  was  being  expended  on  the  work. 
Councils  in  addition  had  gone  on  to  raise  by  direct  tax  a  certain 
amount  of  money  to  be  united  with  this  labor,  and  that  in  some  way 
was  scattered. 

We  found,  and  the  people  found,  after  the  agitation  was  put  prop- 
erly on  foot,  and  statistics  made  and  prepared,  that  we  were  spend- 
ing 1,100,000  days  of  statute  labor,  and  in  addition  the  people  were 
taxing  themselves  a  million  of  money,  and  in  no  instance  could  we 
find  a  solitary  road,  which  we  would  consider  a  first-class  road,  was 
being  built.  Our  people  could  not  in  this  way  equip  themselves  by 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  57 

any  possible  means  with  the  necessary  implements  and  machinery 
that  is  so  essential  to  the  building  of  a  proper  macadam  road  or  the 
building  of  a  substantial  street.  They  went  on  doing  work  without 
the  necessary  tools,  and  consequently  we  find  this  labor  and  money 
represented  a  very,  very  large  outlay  in  that  province,  and  the  agita- 
tion was  in  favor  of  commuting  the  statute  labor  and  substituting 
a  money  tax,  whereby  the  whole  expenditure  which  was  being  made 
could  be  consolidated  and  concentrated  .upon  some  fixed  plan,  lead- 
ing towards  the  construction  of  at  least  a  certain  mileage  of  road 
each  year.  When  the  people  realized  their  expenditure  meant  so 
much,  and  that  this  capitalized  would  secure  for  them  such  a  large 
amount  of  money  to  be  laid  out  in  substantial  work,  with  roads  built 
on  scientific  principles,  when  they  realized  what  a  first-class  maca- 
dam road  was,  and  what  it  cost,  and  that  it  could  be  made  by  them- 
selves with  the  exercise  of  a  little  prudence  and  judgment,  and  the 
use  of  material  that  was  easily  available,  they  began  to  think  there 
was  no  use  in  continuing  that  system  of  patching  and  repair ;  that 
the  time  had  arrived  when  they  should  lay  down  some  definite  plan, 
under  the  direction  of  some  experienced  and  competent  overseer; 
that  they  should  equip  themselves  with  the  necessary  implements 
in  each  township  and  locality;  that  they  should  concentrate  their 
expenditure,  and  commence  at  certain  points  on  leading  roads  first; 
that  they  should  follow  this,  making  the  most  of  their  expenditure 
each  year  in  building,  if  only  a  few  miles,  and  extending  that  year 
by  year.  The  result  was  that  applications  were  made  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, to  the  Department  of  Roads,  for  the  construction  of 
sample  pieces,  in  some  cases  a  mile  and  in  others  half  a  mile,  and  as 
a  general  thing  the  money  was  subscribed  by  the  people  of  the 
locality,  assisted  by  grant  of  the  municipal  council,  for  the  purpose 
of  breaking  down  the  prejudice  that  existed  among  the  people 
against  road  construction.  They  seemed  to  fear  the  estimates  that 
had  been  made  to  them  that  macadam  roads  would  cost  $3,000  or 
$4,000  a  mile  and  in  figuring  this  on  a  basis  of  the  road  mileage  of 
each  township,  100  to  150  miles,  it  seemed  to  frighten  them.  That 
to  a  township  seemed  to  be  too  large  an  expenditure. 

After  the  agitation  had  gone  so  far  as  to  convince  the  people  that 
the  movement  for  better  roads,  for  good  roads,  did  not  mean  the 
bonding  of  the  province  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  large  sum  of 
money,  but  that  it  did  mean  the  directing  of  the  public  mind  to- 
wards a  more  careful  study  of  road  making,  how  roads  should  be 
made,  and  what  implements  should  be  used  in  their  construction, 
what  materials,  and  how  the  materials  should  be  prepared,  and  how 
applied,  what  a  road  would  actually  cost,  how  the  money  could 
be  raised,  and  all  this  sort  of  thing,  the  people  began  to  look  upon 
the  question  of  road  making  as  being  the  most  important  public 
work  with  which  they  had  to  deal.  They  took  a  pride  in  each  local- 
ity in  the  first  half  mile  constructed,  and  were  anxious  for  the  next 
year  to  increase  it  to  a  mile,  and  after  that  first  mile  was  built,  and 
they  saw  some  of  the  advantages  of  it,  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  lay 
down  a  plan  for  the  extension  of  this,  until  the  attention  of  the  Gov- 
ernment was  attracted  to  the  interest  which  the  people  generally 


58  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

were  taking,  and  they  were  prompted  to  encourage  them  by  saying 
that,  wherever  the  county  council,  an  aggregation  of  the  township 
council,  would  lay  down  a  plan  for  macadamizing  the  leading  roads 
in  that  county,  the  Government  would  contribute  one-third  of  the 
cost  of  construction.  This  offer  of  contributing  one-third  of  the 
cost  seemed  to  have  stimulated  the  interest  which  the  people  were 
taking  in  the  matter,  and  there  was  a  desire  to  get  the  Government 
grant.  This  was  never  made  for  the  purpose  of  trying  to  pay  a 
debt  which  the  people  could  not  pay  themselves,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stimulating  that  interest  which  had  been  raised  by  en- 
couraging the  people  and  leading  them  to  believe  that  the  Govern- 
ment was  anxious  to  stand  at  least  a  third  of  the  cost  if  they  them- 
selves would  put  up  the  two-thirds.  That  applied  to  leading  roads. 
The  county  councils  started  in.  Meetings  were  held  in  township 
halls  and  schoolhouses  throughout  the  country  to  explain  to  the  rate 
payers  how  the  work  could  be  carried  out,  what  the  work  would 
cost,  what  the  intention  of  the  county  council  was,  how  they  were 
going  to  raise  the  two-thirds,  and  how  the  people  would  benefit. 
Different  schemes  were  devised  for  raising  their  two-thirds  of  the 
money;  for  the  Government  said:  "You  can  do  as  you  see  fit  as  to 
that;  bond  the  county  if  you  will.  We  give  you  permission  by  this 
special  act  to  raise  up  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  value  of  the  coun- 
ty for  the  purpose  of  meeting  your  two-thirds  of  the  cost,  and  as 
the  work  progresses  we  will  pay  the  one-third  of  the  expenditure. 
The  work  must  be  done,  however,  according  to  the  plans  and  spe- 
cifications laid  down  by  the  Department  of  Public  Works." 

Five  years  have  passed  along,  and  county  after  county  has  fallen 
into  line.  It  was  surprising  how  difficult  it  was  to  break  down  that 
prejudice  the  people  seemed  to  have  against  the  Government  inter- 
fering in  any  way  in  this  connection,  as  to  the  county  councils  tak- 
ing over  any  of  these  roads,  as  to  there  being  any  interference  with 
the  local  management  and  control  of  the  highways,  and  it  looked 
as  if  they  considered  that  there  was  something  behind  all  this  that 
was  going  to  deceive  them,  and  that  they  were  going  to  have  taken 
away  from  them  the  privilege  of  working  out  their  tax.  They  re- 
quired a  little  coaxing  to  get  them  to  abandon  this  system.  It  came 
to  this  that  it  was  looked  upon  as  being  an  honor  of  the  very  high- 
est order  to  be  selected  as  pathmaster,  or  road  commissioner,  or 
road  overseer.  It  looked  to  be  as  if  the  honor  were  of  the  more  im- 
portance, for  the  reason  that  the  man  had  the  say  as  to  what  his 
neighbors  should  do  in  working  on  the  road.  In  many  cases  the 
people  became  sufficiently  interested  in  the  work  of  improving  the 
road  that  they  united  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  piece  of  road. 
They  adopted  the  latest  particulars  of  road  construction,  and 
worked  enthusiastically  and  well,  and  it  seemed  to  be  their  ambition 
to  keep  up  that  section  in  the  best  possible  condition.  But  this  was 
only  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  communities  in  each  township  that 
cared  to  do  it.  The  other  90  per  cent,  seemed  to  be  indifferent. 
They  looked  upon  the  working  out  of  the  task  as  being  a  sort  of 
national  holiday,  in  which  they  could  discharge  their  obligation 
without  doing  any  particular  work,  and  it  seemed  to  be  the  height 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  59 

of  impertinence  for  the  Government  to  interfere  with  the  existing 
state  of  things. 

I  have  frequently  gone  into  meetings  in  townships  and  rural  dis- 
tricts, where  it  was  almost  impossible  to  get  a  chairman  to  act, 
where  some  one  would  say :  "You  must  be  pretty  brave  to  venture 
into  a  place  of  this  description,  and  it  will  be  a  mighty  fortunate 
thing  if  you  are  not  thrown  out  of  the  window  before  the  meeting 
is  over."  This  prejudice  has  been  broken  down.'  We  found  that 
one  of  the  greatest  benefits  to  result  from  the  agitation  for  good 
roads  was  the  starting  an  agitation  for  the  betterment  of  the  high- 
ways, and  then  go  out  and  educate  the  people  along  the  simple  lines 
of  road  construction.  It  is  surprising  what  ignorance  prevails  in 
the  rural  communities  as  to  the  real  principles  of  road  making,  and 
it  is  also  surprising  what  carelessness  exists  among  them  as  to  how 
the  work  should  be  done.  Indifference  seems  to  be  responsible  for 
it.  Some  farmers  are  studying  in  the  most  scientific  way  how  best 
to  till  the  soil,  to  drain  their  land,  to  select  with  the  greatest  care 
their  seeds.  They  have  the  greatest  desire  to  have  good  barns  and 
homes  and  buildings.  Their  ambition  seems  all  to  be  along  those 
particular  lines ;  but  they  never  thought  it  was  worth  their  while, 
or  was  any  of  their  business,  to  study  closely  and  scientifically  the 
matter  of  road  construction.  They  understand  the  principles  of 
drainage  in  connection  with  road  making;  but  they  look  upon  road 
building  as  being  a  matter  that  belongs  to  the  township  councils, 
or  to  the  President  of  the  country,  or  to  the  King  and  Queen.  It 
is  the  King's  Highway  with  us,  and  consequently  it  is  somebody 
else's  business,  and  not  the  property  of  the  general  rate  payer,  and 
he  does  not  consider  there  is  any  obligation  imposed  on  him  to  go 
out  and  organize  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  road  in  front  of 
his  own  land,  which  he  has  by  his  own  individual  effort  so  splendid- 
ly improved.  We  have  been  trying  to  educate  the  people  along 
these  lines.  It  appears  as  if  the  first  thing  that  is  necessary  .to  be 
done,  before  trying  to  educate  the  people  in  the  principles  of  road 
making,  is  to  unteach  them  some  of  the  things  which  have  been 
taught  them  as  to  how  roads  should  not  be  made.  It  appears  as 
if  they  do  the  very  things  they  should  not  do,  and  it  looks  as  if  they 
consider  the  question  of  road  making  as  a  problem  that  is  under- 
stood by  engineers,  and  as  soon  as  an  engineer  attempts  to  suggest 
to  them  how  the  work  should  be  done  they  persistently  refuse  to 
accept  the  proper  methods,  and  will  go  and  spend  time  and  money 
in  doing  the  opposite. 

The  people  will  frequently  say  to  me:  "Well,  tell  us  what  are 
the  principles  of  road  making."  And  I  say:  "The  principles  of 
road  making  are  simpler  than  what  you  think."  So  far  as  I  am 
personally  concerned,  after  an  experience  of  fifteen  years,  devoting 
my  time  exclusively  to  the  building  of  streets  and  roads,  I  have 
reached  the  conclusion  that  road  making,  or  the  principles  of  road 
making,  are  three  in  number,  and  three  only,  and  that  these  prin- 
ciples are  as  simple  as  A,  B,  and  C.  The  first  is  drainage,  the 
second  is  DRAINAGE,  and  the  third  is  DRAINAGE.  (Applause.) 
DRAIN  and  FOUNDATION.  Unless  a  foundation  is  thoroughly 


60  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

drained,  it  is  as  useless  and  fatal  for  you  to  attempt  to  make  a 
good  road  on  that  foundation  as  to  put  up  this  building  on  a  weak 
foundation.  The  foundation  is  practically  the  substance  of  the 
road.  It  is  the  clay,  the  sand,  the  natural  soil,  that  carries  the  load ; 
and  it  is  that  natural  soil  that  must  be  treated,  and  if  that  founda- 
tion is  not  thoroughly  drained,  then  it  matters  not  whether  you  put 
gravel,  or  broken  stone,  or  vitrified  brick,  or  asphalt.  That  road 
will  be  defective.  The  frost  acts  on  the  moisture  in  the  foundation, 
and  raises  it,  and  if  it  is  a  macadam  surface  the  course  is  raised 
up,  and  when  the  frost  goes  out  the  bottom  is  honeycombed,  the 
course  raised  up  is  raised  up  on  an  unstable  foundation,  and  the 
road  cracks  and  splits,  and  the  destruction  of  that  road  is  com- 
menced. The  foundation  must  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  that  is 
necessary,  whether  it  is  to  be  a  macadam,  or  a  vitrified  brick,  or  an 
asphalt  pavement.  That  drainage  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
betterment  of  all  earth  roads,  and  with  us,  while  we  are  making  con- 
siderable progress  along  those  lines,  it  will  be  many,  many  years 
before  all  the  roads  in  our  province,  or  in  any  of  your  states,  will 
be  macadamized  or  covered  with  stone.  The  earth  road,  for  ordi- 
nary purposes,  will  be  the  public  highway,  generally  speaking,  for 
a  great  many  years  to  come,  and  it  is  surprising  what  an  improve- 
ment we  can  make  upon  ordinary  clay  or  earth  roads,  if  care,  cau- 
tion, and  proper  principles  are  applied  to  the  shaping  of  the  road, 
the  draining  of  the  road,  and  to  keeping  the  road  from  year  to  year 
after  the  spring  season  has  passed. 

We  started  in  .to  show  how  earth  roads  should  be  made.  We 
started  to  show  what  these  principles  were  and,  as  I  said,  the  first 
principle  of  drainage  is  to  drain  the  foundation,  to  make  it  hard 
and  unyielding,  to  shape  the  road  so  as  to  shed  the  water  out  from 
the  center  to  the  ditches,  to  make  the  ditches  along  the  side,  or  the 
gutters  with  a  uniform  slope  leading  to  some  outlet  and  to  make 
the  outlets  through  the  adjacent  property  as  near  as  possible.  Cov- 
er the  surface  of  the  road  with  some  hard  material  that  prevents 
the  earth  rutting,  that  will  withstand  the  traffic  and  prevent  the 
wear. 

We  classify  our  roads  into  three  classes :  (1)  Leading  roads, 
carrying  from  county  to  county  to  a  central  point,  which  are  sub- 
jected to  heavy  traffic,  and  which  are  made  more  expensively  than 
other  roads.  (2)  Those  roads  used  only  by  a  community,  leading 
onto  the  leading  roads.  This  class  of  roads  does  not  require  to  be 
treated  in  such  an  expensive  way  as  the  roads  with  heavier  traffic. 
(3)  One-third  of  the  roads  are  back  roads,  that  lead  into  little  set- 
tlements, used  in  many  instances  only  by  one  or  two  farmers  to 
reach  other  roads. 

We  adopted  the  plan  of  encouraging  county  councils  comprising 
the  larger  area  to  lay  down  these  roads  passing  through  the  dif- 
ferent townships,  making  as  far  as  possible  a  connecting  system  of 
leading  roads  in  that  county,  and  in  approving  the  plans  we  com- 
pared the  plan  favored  by  the  adjoining  county  with  the  plan  of 
the  county  that  had  been  adopted,  so  as  to  see  that  the  plans  would 
make  a  connecting  ^system  between  the  counties,  and  the  leading 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  61 

roads  are  the  roads  we  attempted  to  aid  in  construction.  Now  fif- 
teen counties,  about  one-third  of  the  organized  part  of  the  province 
of  Ontario,  have  already  in  hand  the  operation  of  that  connecting 
system,  and  nearly  three  thousand  miles  of  first-class  macadam 
roads  have  been  constructed. 

Mr.    R.  H.  Thomson:   What  is  the  soil? 

I  may  say  about  half  of  these  counties  are  a  flat  clay  soil.  Stone, 
limestone,  granite,  and  trap  are  to  be  found  in  about  half  of  the  prov- 
ince ;  some  sandstone  and  drift  boulder  are  to  be  found  in  other  parts. 
We  have  adopted  the  plan,  however,  of  using  the  stone  that  is  most 
convenient  within  a  reasonable  cost.  In  most  instances  we  are  not 
using  the  stone  of  the  very  highest  quality,  but  in  that  case  we  under- 
stand that  the  cost  of  repair  will  be  considerably  more  than  if  we  used 
the  better  quality  stone ;  but,  if  we  have  the  freight  to  add  on  the  long 
distance  it  has  to  be  hauled,  the  cost  becomes  so  great  as  to  make 
it  almost  prohibitive,  but  we  believe,  using  the  cheaper  class  of 
stone,  we  will  soon  convince  the  people  of  the  wisdom  and  im- 
portance of  improved  roads,  and  later  on  it  will  be  less  difficult  to 
have  these  resurfaced  with  a  better  class. of  material.  However, 
there  is  no  doubt,  from  a  careful  study  of  the  problem,  that  it  will 
be  money  well  spent  to  use  the  ideal  road  material  in  the  first  in- 
stance, when  you  consider  the  question  of  cost;  but,  as  I  say,  you 
cannot  bring  about  this  by  any  revolutionary  measure,  but  rather 
by  a  voluntary  measure.  We  must  establish  object  lessons,  and 
gradually  improve  our  plans  and  guide  our  people  into  the  adoption 
of  the  better  class  of  work,  until  we  have  reached  the  ideal.  But 
progress  will  be  slow  along  this  line,  and  it  will  be  some  time  be- 
fore we  can  convince  them  of  the  economic  value  of  using  the  most 
expensive  material  in  the  first  instance.  We  are  striving,  however, 
to  that  end,  and,  in  connection  with  the  School  of  Practical  Science 
of  the  Province  of  Ontario,  samples  from  every  municipality  are 
.sent  in  and  tested  free  of  cost,  and  returned  to  the  engineers  or  road 
commissioners  of  municipal  council.  That  department  of  the  Un- 
iversity is  devoting  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  this  matter,  more 
particularly  in  the  towns  and  cities,  where  the  millions  and  millions 
of  money  raised  from  the  people  by  the  cold  machinery  of  taxation 
are  simply  spent,  squandered,  and  buried  in  mud  by  the  hand  of 
ignorance  and  inexperience.  As  I  have  told  the  people,  the  time 
has  arrived  when  they  should  look  upon  the  question  of  street  im- 
provement as  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  public 
works  of  cities  and  towns,  and  that  care  of  the  highest  order  should 
be  employed,  and  all  the  agencies  of  the  Universities  should  be 
brought  into  operation  to  save  the  people  from  that  awful  taxation 
through  which  they  have  been  passing  in  connection  with  the  pav- 
ing of  the  streets  of  their  towns  and  cities. 

I  often  think  that  principles  more  reckless  and  more  extravagant 
are  practiced  in  connection  with  the  streets  of  towns  than  with  the 
roads  in  rural  districts.  The  towns  are  the  centers  of  that,  and 
they  should  set  the  example.  They  should  establish  the  object  les- 
sons for  the  benefit  of  the  people  in  the  outside  districts. 


62  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

However,  we  are  paying  particular  attention  now  to  the  improv- 
ing of  the  rural  roads.  We  have  3,000  miles  of  .these  roads  now  con- 
necting, as  a  general  thing,  so  as  to  form  a  line  across  the  whole 
district  of  fifteen  townships,  which  have  been  laid  down,  and  this 
work  has  been  completed,  and  these  very  councils  which  were  the 
first  to  adopt  the  plan  are  now  pressing  the  Government  for  an 
extension  of  their  plans  to  permit  them  to  lay  down  a  greater  road 
mileage.  It  is  surprising  how  contagious  it  becomes  when  people 
get  the  disease  of  road  improvement,  when  they  see  good  roads 
made  how  remarkably  easy  it  is  for  them  to  finance  the  problem, 
how  zealous  they  then  are  to  stretch  out  and  extend  that  improve- 
ment. The  counties  that  came  in  first,  that  have  made  the  greatest 
expenditure,  are  now  the  counties  that  are  pressing  the  Government 
the  hardest  to  make  that  act  more  liberal,  so  as  to  permit  them  to 
bring  in  a  greater  mileage  of  road.  It  is  a  contagious  disease,  this 
matter  of  road  making.  It  stretches  out  every  day  until  it  gets  hold 
of  people,  and  when  it  gets  hold  of  them  it  is  surprising  how  it 
clings  to  them.  The  farmer  believes  that  the  road  in  front  of  his 
place  never  could  be  macadamized.  It  is  such  a  herculean  task  he 
could  never  think  of  bearing  the  cost  of  having  it  macadamized ; 
but  after  it  has  been  stoned,  and  he  has  paid  his  tax,  he  forgets 
all  about  the  cost  per  mile,  and  he  is  living  in  luxury.  He  does  not 
understand  how  it  was  brought  about;  but  it  was  through  some 
machinery  of  the  Government,  some  plan  of  the  Government  that 
these  leading  roads  should  be  improved,  and  that  has  led  to  the 
macadamizing  of  these  particular  roads. 

We  do  not  go  into  expensive  paving.  We  use  the  material  that 
is  most  easily  available.  We  use  rock  crushers  for  crushing  the 
stone.  We  have  regular  outfits  that  belong  to  the  county  council, 
managed  by  the  county  road  commissioner,  and  the  provision  is  im- 
posed by  the  Government  that,  wherever  a  county  plan  is  laid  down 
by  the  county  council,  they  must  select  a  competent  road  commis- 
sioner to  take  charge  of  the  work,  and  to  see  that  the  plans  and 
specifications  of  the  Government  are  carried  out.  One-third  of  the 
cost  of  that  commissioner  is  paid  by  the  Government,  although  he 
is  a  county  commissioner;  then  he  is  approved  by  the  Department 
of  Public  Works  as  being  a  person  competent  .to  carry  out  the  plans 
and  specifications  of  the  Department.  This  was  objected  to  in  the 
first  instance,  until  they  saw  that  road  making,  the  business  of 
road  making,  takes  years  of  training  to  prepare  a  man  for  the  posi- 
tion, and  that  it  was  to  their  interest  to  have  an  expert,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  benefits  resulting  from  that  is  that  the  work  of  that  ex- 
pert is  studied  by  the  people  in  that  community,  and  everything 
he  does  is  watched  by  the  farmers,  by  the  local  road  commissioners 
and  councilors,  and  they  see  how  he  does  the  work,  how  he  operates 
the  machine,  how  he  grades  the  roads  and  prepares  it  for  the  ma- 
terial, how  he  prepares  the  material,  how  he  places  it,  how  he  rolls 
it,  and  how  he  finishes  it,  and  that  object  lesson  we  consider  one  of 
the  greatest  benefits  the  people  will  receive  in  connection  with 
state  aid. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  63 

Not  'more  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  roads  fall  in  the  county  scheme. 
The  remaining  90  per  cent,  of  the  roads  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
local  councils,  so  that  you  can  see  that  it  is  only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  roads  that  the  Government  aids  in  the  construction  of.  But 
these  examples  stand  there  to  influence  for  good  in  the  making  of 
the  90  per  cent,  remaining,  and  we  find  that  the  benefits  resulting 
in  this  way  repay  the  province  and  make  it  one  of  the  most  profit- 
able outlets  they  can  contemplate.  Example  is  a  wonderful  thing. 
Now,  in  our  timber  districts,  of  course,  we  used  to  use  timber  for 
making  the  culverts  and  sluices  and  small  bridges.  Since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Government  measure,  we  have  prepared  plans  and  spec- 
ifications for  the  making  of  the  sluices  and  culverts  along  the  roads 
of  cement  concrete.  Cement  concrete  is  put  along  the  small  roads, 
cement  concrete  arches  reinforced  with  steel  being  used  in  the 
larger  roads,  and  in  everything  done  on  these  roads  we  insist  that 
it  must  be  done  in  the  most  substantial  and  finished  way.  Where 
these  culverts  and  sluices  are  necessary  for  the  drainage  of  the  land, 
they  will  be  required  as  long  as  the  community  exists  and  the  roads 
are  there,  and  consequently  economy  dictates  they  should  be  built 
in  the  most  substantial  and  finished  manner. 

A  few  years  ago,  people  used  to  think  that  this  class  of  construc- 
tion belonged  to  European  countries,  and  that  the  work  was  under- 
taken either  for  embellishment  or  for  certain  purposes  of  defense, 
but  that  the  cost  was  so  great  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to 
undertake  it.  Now  these  commissioners  on  county  roads  where 
state  aid  has  gone  see  how  easy  it  is  to  make  cement  pipes.  They 
take  the  materials  and  things  with  them,  and  select  the  material  and 
manufacture  the  pipes  on  the  ground,  and  lay  them  down,  and  the 
farmers  will  come  out  and  sit  on  the  bank  of  the  ditch,  the  elder 
ones,  and  sit  and  marvel  at  the  ease  with  which  these  pipes  are  con- 
structed. They  see  them  laid  in  the  trench  and  covered  over,  and 
the  walls  made  to  protect  the  pipes  from  the  wash  and  other  de- 
structive agencies.  Then  they  go  along  and  put  up  a  cement  con- 
crete arch,  and  the  commissioners  will  at  some  time  during  the  con- 
struction of  the  arch  come  and  watch  the  operation.  Those  who 
have  to  do  with  that  work  on  the  lateral  roads  in  their  own  dis- 
trict will  sit  there  by  the  hour,  and  the  commissioner  and  all  con- 
nected with  the  work  have  positive  and  definite  instructions  from 
our  Department  to  see  that  every  question  asked  is  answered,  and 
the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  show  the  people  how  the  thing  is  done, 
and  to  give  them  the  fullest  information.  These  men  watch,  and  go 
back  into  their  own  districts.  They  say,  "That  is  easily  done ;  I 
can  build  an  arch,"  and  they  go  back,  and  where  it  is  necessary  they 
can  get  copies  of  the  plans  and  specifications  and  go  out  there,  and 
if  it  is  necessary  and  convenient  for  that  commissioner  he  may 
send  one  of  his  men  to  give  some  assistance  and  instruction  and  di- 
rection. These  are  only  in  the  initiative ;  but,  where  a  township 
is  commencing  for  the  first  time  to  do  work  of  that  kind,  we  try 
to  instruct  them  along  that  line.  A  local  road  commissioner,  path- 
master,  or  local  council  will  undertake  work  of  that  sort,  and  carry 
it  out  to  a  successful  completion,  and  will  boast  of  what  they  have 


64  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

accomplished,  and  will  take  the  greatest  pride  in  pointing  to  this 
work  as  being  a  fine  piece  of  work  done  under  their  management. 

That  sort  of  encouragement  does  more  than  anything  else  to 
stimulate  the  councilors  to  better  work,  and  to  show  them  that  they 
should  take  greater  interest  in  this  municipal  road  work  than  they 
have  done  in  the  past.  Encouragement  is  a  wonderful  thing.  It  is 
a  stimulant,  and  that  is  what  is  required  more  than  anything  else, 
because  the  people  of  the  community  see  that  the  common  high- 
way is  their  property,  and  that  they  are  the  people  who  should  look 
after  it,  and  that  they  are  the  ones  who  must  look  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  roads,  if  improvement  is  to  be  made  in  this  country. 

The  stone  would  be  broken  and  screened  into  four  different 
grades,  from  2y2  inches  down.  In  early  practice  we  used  to  figure 
on  building  about  12  inches,  placing  about  12  inches  of  stone  on  the 
roadway,  varying  from  8  feet  in  width  to  16  or  18  feet,  and  as  one 
approaches  the  towns  the  width  and  fill  of  stone  depend  upon  the 
extent  and  nature  of  the  traffic  on  that  road.  A  road  lying  near  a 
large  corporation  or  center  requires  to  be  paved  from  ditch  to  ditch, 
or  on  a  street  from  curb  to  curb ;  but  as  we  get  to  only  a  single 
line  of  traffic  8  feet  wide  and  8  inches  deep  is  sufficient.  In  early 
practice  we  followed  the  plan  of  laying  12  inches  of  stone ;  first  6 
inches  of  coarse  stone  broken  to  2^-inch  mesh,  and  then  about  3 
inches  of  the  next  grade,  broken  to  about  1^/o-inch,  and  then  about 
2  inches  of  stone  broken  to  three-quarters,  and  then  we  placed  on 
this  about  one  inch  of  stone  dust.  This  was  a  specification  that 
was  looked  upon  as  being  a  very  good  one ;  but  we  have  changed 
that  somewhat,  and  our  experience  even  now  is  causing  us  to  change 
these  specifications,  and  I  do  not  know  when  the  ideal  specifica- 
tion will  be  reached.  We  think  we  have  reached  it;  but  experience 
suggests  some  little  change  from  day  to  day,  and  we  are  continual- 
ly making  little  changes,  and  I  think  it  is  a  good  thing  for  us  that 
we  are  students  enough  to  make  the  changes  that  should  be  made, 
because  I  suppose  that  this  science  on  the  American  continent  is 
only  in  its  infancy.  We  do  not  appear  to  be  able  to  get  much  as- 
sistance from  the  older  countries.  In  the  early  days  there  were 
some  stupendous  roads  built.  -They  were  built  in  a  very  substan- 
tial manner.  They  were  certainly  built  in  an  excellent  manner; 
but  in  this  country  of  such  long  distances  it  would  be  impossible  for 
us  to  hope  to  follow  their  pattern,  and  we  have  to  figure  consider- 
ably for  ourselves. 

I  believe  that  it  is  good  practice  to  work  the  heavier  grade  of 
crushed  stone  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  wearing  surface,  and  I  think 
it  is  advisable  to  place  the  stone  on  in  layers  of  not  more  than  6 
inches  without  rolling,  and  that  the  fine  dust  screens,  instead  of  be- 
ing placed  on  top,  should  be  dusted  into  it,  to  fill  the  voids  through 
the  whole  construction  of  the  work.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  get 
that  perfect  consolidation  necessary  by  rolling  entirely  from  the 
surface.  It  is  difficult  to  make  people  believe  that  a  road  is  heavy 
enough,  if  we  do  not  give  an  impression  that  the  road  behind  is 
as  firm  as  solid  rock.  I  believe  in  using  a  light  roller,  about  10 
tons  in  weight;  but  that  should  be  used  as  often  as  possible  during 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  65 

the  whole  construction  of  the  road.  Keep  sprinkling  the  stone  and 
rolling  it  in,  mixing  with  an  amount  of  fine  sand.  Do  not  dump  it 
on  the  surface  of  the  road,  but  take  it  out  of  the  cart  with  a  shovel 
and  sprinkle  it  where  necessary.  It  is  slow  work,  but  it  is  the  only 
way  to  get  the  perfect  instrument  that  is  required. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  stone  is  of  uniform  size  if  you 
want  the  road  to  wear  uniform,  and,  more  important  still,  that  the 
stone  is  of  uniform  character.  Then  see  that  every  block  is  keyed 
in  its  place,  and  enough  binding  material  to  pack  it,  and  see  that 
every  void  is  filled,  and  roll  it  until  it  is  thoroughly  packed  and 
brought  to  an  even  surface.  Never  make  the  stone  thicker  in  one 
place  than  another;  never  leave  depressions  to  be  filled  with  a 
greater  thickness  of  stone;  otherwise  you  will  get  an  un-uniform 
surface.  Bond  the  first  course  of  macadam ;  bond  every  course,  and 
roll  every  course  until  you  have  the  stones  set  in  place,  and  sprinkle 
with  water,  so  that  the  bonding  will  be  carried  down ;  but  do  not 
sprinkle  so  much  as  to  wet  the  earth  underneath  the  roadway. 

Question:   What  would  be  the  cost  per  mile? 

Mr.  Campbell:  It  all  depends  upon  the  availability  of  the  mate- 
rial. They  cost  us  from  $1,200  to  $3,500.  If  you  are  building  roads 
along  this  plan,  then  these  implements  are  necessary,  and  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  men  who  are  capable  of  operating  them.  I  have 
seen  implements  used  on  roads,  where  the  people  are  simply  sent 
out  at  so  much  a  day  to  make  the  improvement.  With  implements 
so  directed,  sides  cut  off  the  roads,  and  stuff  piled  in  that  should 
never  be  put  there,  whether  the  roads  were  stone  or  gravel  orig- 
inally, and  the  shoulders  had  risen  so  high  as  to  prevent  drainage, 
these  were  cut  off,  and  stuff  brought  in  and  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
old  road.  There  is  a  lot  of  that  weak  material  to  be  found  on  every 
road  that  should  not  be  put  in,  but  cut  off  and  turned  out.  Many 
times  you  will  find  the  operator  of  the  machine  who  sees  a  road 
to  be  rounded  to  a  certain  course,  and  he  simply  carries  out  his 
instructions  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  machine  himself.  The  man 
should  be  a  skilled  workman,  a  mechanic  that  not  only  understands 
his  machine,  but  the  purpose  for  which  the  machine  was  designed, 
and  he  should  use  some  skill  and  brains  in  the  operating  of  it. 

The  road  grading  machine  is  one  of  the  most  economical  instru- 
ments ever  invented  for  the  purpose  of  bettering  roads ;  but  in  some 
instances  it  would  be  better  for  a  community  if  they  had  never 
seen  a  grading  machine.  Roads  are  injured  rather  than  bettered; 
but  that  road  machine  has  no  brains,  and  knows  no  more  about 
road  making  than  I  do.  (Laughter.)  It  is  used  for  a  purpose,  and 
unless  operated  by  somebody  who  does  understand  road  making, 
you  had  better  be  without  the  machine. 

I  have  brought  the  question  of  macadam  roads  down  to  this, 
and  it  is  very  little  use  for  me  to  say  anything  about  this,  because 
the  paper  we  have  heard  covers  the  ground  completely.  It  deals 
with  everything  there  is  to  be  said  about  it,  and  consequently  I 
hesitated  to  read  my  own  paper,  because  it  is  repetition,  and  for 
that  reason  I  started  to  do  some  talking,  and  forgot  about  the  pa- 


66  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

per.  As  I  say,  the  whole  subject  is  boiled  down  to  the  preparation 
of  the  foundation  that  must  be  made,  and  in  some  instances  it  is 
easily  made,  because  the  material  is  loose  and  easily  drained.  In 
other  cases  the  material  is  wet,  soft,  and  soggy,  and  that  must  be 
drained.  In  mountains  and  hilly  districts,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
provide  these  side  water  beds;  but  it  is  just  as  important  in  rocky, 
mountainous  districts  to  provide  for  the  carrying  down  of  the  wa- 
ter, because,  if  you  do  <not  provide  for  the  carrying  away  of  the 
water,  it  will  wash  away  more  or  less  each  year,  until  the  road  is 
made  rough  and  impassable.  The  foundation  requires  the  first  at- 
tention, and  then  prepare  the  stone.  I  have  known  roads  where  it 
has  cost  $5,000  to  make  the  foundation  for  a  mile.  There  are  in- 
stances where  roads  must  necessarily  cost  an  enormous  amount  of 
money.  These  are  the  worst  spots,  and  if  you  cannot  touch  the 
rest  of  the  mileage,  if  it  costs  $10,000  for  the  one  bad  mile,  spend 
the  money  on  that  one  bad  mile,  and  leave  the  balance  of  the  road 
in  general  fairly  good  condition. 

We  must  choose  or  adapt  ourselves  to  conditions  as  we  find 
them,  and  the  question  of  cost  is  something.  A  railroad  company 
will  go  to  build  a  railroad  over  a  prairie  district ;  but  you  cannot 
compare  that  with  the  cost  of  the  system  that  has  to  be  built 
through  a  mountainous  district.  They  try  to  lay  down  a  system 
that  will  serve  the  community  and  make  the  connections  they  wish 
to  make,  and  then  they  go  to  build  the  road  and  try  to  find  the  nec- 
essary money  for  building  it.  That  is  about  all  that  can  be  done 
in  connection  with  roads.  To  estimate  the  cost  per  mile  is  mislead- 
ing, because  in  one  township  you  may  build  for  $1,000  a  mile,  and 
in  an  adjoining  township  it  may  cost  you  two  or  three  times  as 
much,  and  in  another  part  of  the  county  it  may  cost  on  some  miles 
as  much  as  $10,000.  We  cannot  very  well  speak  of  cost  per  mile. 
If  we  simply  say,  "What  is  the  cost  per  mile  and  where  will  we 
get  the  money?"  we  will  never  have  macadam  roads. 

We  have  sections  to-day  that  have  originally  been  covered  with 
the  heaviest  class  of  timber,  and  when  the  early  settlers  came  in, 
about  one  hundred  years  ago,  they  had  some  reason  for  asking, 
''What  will  it  cost  per  mile?"  They  had  no  money  but  strong  arms. 
They  had  the  brain  and  determination,  and  these  men  went  in,  they 
cut  down  the  trees,  they  grubbed  out  the  stumps,  they  corduroyed 
the  swamps,  they  bridged  the  streams  with  their  own  labor,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  one  dollar  from  the  municipal  or  government 
treasury.  If  these  men  had  said,  "What  will  it  cost  per  mile?" 
"Where  will  we  get  the  money?"  this  continent  would  still  be  a 
wilderness,  we  would  have  no  roads.  But  they  said  and  knew  that 
roads  are  of  the  first  importance  in  connection  with  settlement. 
They  said :  "It  is  no  use  asking  what  it  will  cost  per  mile,  and 
where  will  we  get  the  money.  It  is  necessary  we  bind  ourselves 
together  in  the  possible  bonds,  and  labor  intelligently  under  the 
direction  of  our  best  and  most  brainy  citizen."  They  cut  down 
trees  and  labored  hard,  with  the  result  that  we  now  have  in  nearly 
every  state  and  province  of  this  continent  our  road  allowance 
cleared  and  graded  to  some  extent.  What  remains  is  for  us  to  com- 
mence and  form  roads,  form  the  roadbed,  and  put  on  some  material 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  67 

that  would  put  them  in  a  finished  condition  ;  and  it  is  useless  to  con- 
sider cost  per  mile,  but  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  commence  on  right 
principles  and  work  back,  so  that  the  labor  and  expenditure  we  are 
now  making  will  produce  a  dollar's  worth  of  road  for  every  dollar 
spent  on  it,  a  dollar  and  a  half  of  road  for  every  day  of  our  labor 
that  is  spent  upon  it.  It  is  time  we  wakened  up  and  gave  that  sys- 
tem of  labor  and  labor  tax  the  credit  to  which  it  is  entitled.  It  has 
performed  its  labors.  It  has  done  the  services  for  which  it  was 
designed,  not  only  for  this  continent,  but  every  other  continent,  in 
the  early  days.  But  it  has  outworn  its  usefulness,  and  it  is  cruelty 
to  ask  it  to  perform  the  service  of  macadamizing  and  finishing  the 
roads  that  it  was  never  intended  to  perform.  Give  it  credit  for 
what  it  has  done,  and  let  us  pass  on,  and  revise  our  methods,  and 
adopt  a  policy  that  will  benefit  all  of  every  state  and  province  on 
the  continent  by  the  improvement  of  their  roads. 

Who  have  fixed  these  roads  and  brought  them  to  their  present 
condition?  The  farmers  of  the  states  have  built  the  rural  roads, 
but  the  people  in  the  towns  and  cities  see  what  they  are  doing. 
Is  it  not  a  marvel  to  come  into  this  state  of  Washington,  and  city 
of  Seattle,  and  see  these  splendidly  paved  streets.  It  is  a  revelation 
to  me,  after  having  visited  cities  that  have  taken  generations  and 
centuries  upon  centuries  to  improve  in  this  way,  to  come  for  the 
first  time  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  find  this  young  town  with  its 
magnificent  buildings  and  its  road  making  in  keeping  with  all.  It 
is  a  pleasure  and  delight,  and  I  have  no  doubt  every  person  in  this 
state  takes  a  great  delight  in  coming  here  and  seeing  how  this  has 
been  brought  about. 

How  about  the  roads  in  this  city?  Let  this  be  typical  of  every 
state  of  the  Union.  As  a  general  thing,  we  find,  while  cities  and 
towns  have  made  wonderful  strides  in  this  connection,  the  people 
in  the  rural  districts  have  not.  I  have  wondered,  in  thinking  this 
thing  over  seriously,  how  it  comes  that  this  tax  or  obligation  of 
the  making  of  roads  in  the  rural  districts  should  have  been  imposed 
on  the  farmer,  and  the  farmer  alone.  Why  is  it  that  the  people  of 
the  country  should  build  the  roads  to  bring  the  produce  of  the  farm- 
er, of  the  mine  and  factory,  into  the  city  and  market,  and  to  bring 
the  goods  of  the  merchant  and  manufacturer  back  into  the  country, 
any  more  than  the  people  of  the  cities  and  towns  should  have  been 
obliged  to  build  roads  into  the  district  to  scatter  their  goods  and 
wares  and  bring  the  product  of  the  farm  back  into  the  town. 

Gentlemen,  it  is  too  much  to  expect  that  the  farmers  are  going 
to  keep  up  all  these  roads  and  make  them  or  bring  them  to  that  con- 
dition which  the  commercial  requirements  of  the  country  demand 
they  should  be  brought  within.  The  assistance  and  co-operation 
of  the  people  of  the  towns  and  cities  is  the  only  one  fair  way  of 
bringing  this  about,  and  that  is  to  have  the  tax  imposed  in  such 
a  way  that  every  member  of  the  community  will  contribute  to- 
ward the  building  at  least  of  the  main  roads  leading  out  through 
the  country.  Every  merchant  in  every  center  will  benefit  as  much 
as  the  farmer  that  is  served.  There  must  be  some  co-operation ; 
otherwise  it  will  be  impossible  to  get  these  roads  brought  to  this 
M.R.B.— 6 


(jg  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

condition.  There  must  be  a  state  tax,  in  my  opinion.  We  found 
that  the  people  of  the  towns  and  cities  were  willing  to  help  the 
farmers,  and  were  willing  to  be  taxed  with  the  people  of  the  town- 
ships and  rural  districts  to  bring  about  these  better  roads.  The 
question  has  always  been  looked  upon  as  being  too  commonplace, 
and  the  brainy  men  of  the  country  never  thought  it  worth  their 
while  to  devote  their  attention  to  the  commonplace  question  of 
how  to  make  and  keep  the  roads.  That  has  been  lost  sight  of. 
Let  it  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  biggest  problems  of  the  com- 
munity, and  we  will  arouse  public  sentiment  and  have  legislation 
that  will  be  fair,  just,  and  equitable,  that  will  bring  about  this  im- 
provement, and  every  member  of  the  community  will  benefit, 
whether  in  city,  town,  or  county.  What  would  be  the  good  of 
the  country,  if  it  were  not  for  the  transportation  system?  That  is 
made  up  of  railroads,  the  highway  of  the  sea,  and  the  common  wag- 
on roads.  In  the  province  of  Ontario  we  have  a  regular  network  of 
railroads,  so  complete  as  to  almost  make  us  say  that  no  other  road 
will  be  necessary,  yet  there  are  only  8,000  miles  of  railroad  and  60  - 
000  miles  of  wagon  road.  Every  ounce  which  is  carried  by  railroad 
or  steamship  must  pass  over  the  wagon  roads  of  the  country.  Close 
up  the  wagon  roads  of  the  country,  and  your  marvelous  system  of 
railroads  will  starve  in  idleness,  or  the  ocean  vessels  would  rust  at 
their  moorings. 

This  is,  then,  an  important  question,  the  biggest  end  of  the  great 
system  of  transportation.  I  have  for  the  first  time  had  this  oppor- 
tunity of  coming  through  these  Western  states,  and  have  viewed 
something  of  your  railroad  system,  stretching  as  it  does  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  built  with  a  skill  and  daring  that  compels 
the  admiration  of  the  civilized  world.  These  were  not  built  in  any 
haphazard  way,  but  by  the  organized  effort  of  brainy  people  of  this 
nation.  They  got  themselves  together  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
down  trunk  roads  of  the  transportation  system,  and  as  a  result 
there  has  been  built  a  marvelous  system ;  yet,  when  you  come  to 
count  up,  this  is  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  great  transportation 
system  that  is  necessary  to  carry  the  stuff  from  the  farm,  from  the 
field,  from  the  mine,  to  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  bigger  end 
of  the  transportation  system  still  has  to  be  undertaken,  to  get  the 
full  benefit.  Why  was  it  that  that  particular  individual  who  to-day 
in  the  public  interest  has  seen  fit  upon  this  Pacific  Coast  to  call  for 
the  first  time  a  Congress  of  Road  Makers,  but  that  he  realized  from 
the  experience  he  has  had  in  the  greater  problems  of  transportation 
that  the  greater  the  improvement  upon  the  lesser,  the  better  for  the 
greater.  It  is  a  man  of  this  kind  that  you  want  to  have  at  the  head 
of  your  Association.  You  want  men  who  do  not  see  for  the  sea- 
son, but  see  into  the  future,  look  beyond  the  sky  line  where  the 
great  roads  go  down.  They  are  the  men  who  are  required  in  the 
western  part  of  this  continent  to  bring  about  these  great  improve- 
ments that  still  remain  to  be  made,  and  I  say  in  this  connection  that 
you  have  undertaken  marvelous  works  and  carried  them  to  a  suc- 
cessful completion.  This  question  of  the  improvement  of  the  com- 
mon roads  still  remains  to  be  taken  hold  of,  and  I  think  it  is  a  sub- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  69 

ject  for  congratulation  to  find  that  such  men  as  your  present  Presi- 
dent and  the  University  of  your  state  have  seen  fit  to  take  hold  of 
this  matter  in  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  taken  hold  of,  and 
I  believe  in  the  next  five  years'  time  you  will  have  an  organization 
laid  down  here  for  the  improvement  of  roads  that  will  bring  about 
and  make  the  road  improvement  in  keeping  with  the  other  improve- 
ments made  in  every  other  connection,  and  when  we  return  here,  if 
Fortune  permit  it,  in  a  few  years'  time,  we  will  have  the  opportu- 
nity of  being  driven  over  some  of  the  ideal  macadam  roads  of  the 
state  of  Washington.  (Cheers.) 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  hardly  know  how  to  express  the  thanks  of 
this  Congress  to  Mr.  Campbell.  I  have  heard  many  addresses  on 
the  road  question,  but  I  don't  think  I  ever  heard  an  address  that 
covered  so  completely  the  ground  necessary  to  be  covered  on  this 
topic.  I  might  say  that  every  paper  presented  here  and  every 
address  given  will  be  carefully  printed  and  published  as  the  last 
word  on  the  question  of  road  building  to-day  in  this  country  in  book 
form. 

Mr.  M.  O.  Eldredge:  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Campbell  two 
questions : 

1.  In  the  drainage  of  the  road  in  wet  places  and  in  mountain  sec- 
tions, do  you  ever  use  the  subdrains  or  tile  drains? 

2.  What  method  do  you  adopt  in  the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion 
in  maintaining  the  state  roads  after  they  are  once  built? 

Mr.  Campbell:  In  answer  to  your  first  question,  we  adopt  the 
system  of  side  ditches  or  gutters  for  the  carrying  off  the  surface 
water.  In  clay  of  a  retentive  character  we  use  subdrains  of  porous 
tile.  In  laying  the  tiles  we  find  it  is  necessary  to  be  very  careful. 
We  usually  put  sawdust  or  gravel  underneath  the  tile,  and  cover 
this  with  coarse  material,  or  material  that  will  form  a  sort  of  filter, 
and  attract  the  moisture  from  the  road  to  let  it  readily  into  the 
tiles.  In  reply  to  your  second  question,  the  road  is  maintained  by 
the  county  council  that  constructed  them,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  county  superintendent.  He  goes  over  the  roads,  and  our 
instructions  to  him  are  to  maintain  these  roads,  or  repair  them,  by 
never  letting  them  get  out  of  repair. 

Mr.  Lancaster:  Have  you  not  built  some  roads  of  a  thickness  of 
6  inches? 

Mr.  Campbell:  Yes;  many  of  them,  as  I  pointed  out.  We  look 
upon  6  inches  of  crushed  stone  properly  applied  on  a  well-drained 


70  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

foundation  as  being  just  as  competent  for  the  third-class  roads  as 
16  inches  would  be  for  the  roads  that  have  the  heavier  traffic. 

Mr.  Eldredge:  Do  you  ask  for  state  aid  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  roads? 

Mr.  Campbell:    No. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  agree  with  what  Mr.  Campbell  says  as  to 
the  foundation  of  the  road.  If  you  have  the  bottom  right,  you  have 
everything  right.  Mr.  Campbell  has  spoken  about  our  streets  here, 
and  the  man  who  made  these  streets  is  here  to-day.  He  has  a  paper 
which  it  will  take  him  about  16  minutes  to  read,  and,  as  we  have 
that  much  time  before  noon  recess,  I  will  ask  Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson, 
our  city  engineer,  to  read  his  paper  on  "Why  and  How  Cities  are 
Built." 

Mr.  Thomson,  who  was  heartily  received,  said : 

My  paper  is  on  an  entirely  different  topic  to  that  which  has  pre- 
ceded it.  It  was  produced  by  the  very  conditions  which.  Mr.  Camp- 
bell has  indicated  as  having  prevailed  in  Canada.  In  Canada  it 
seems  that  the  gospel  of  Good  Roads  is  propagated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. In  Washington  the  gospel  of  Good  Roads  is  promulgated 
by  Samuel  Hill.  Last  fall  Mr.  Hill  asked  me  to  go  with  him  to  a  cer- 
tain county  seat  in  a  very  rich  county  in  the  state  of  Washington. 
I  will  have  to  admit  that  he  used  some  little  deception  in  getting 
me  to  go  there.  He  thought  that  perhaps  even  I  might  not  be 
brave  enough  to  face  the  hostiles  in  that  territory  on  the  question 
of  good  roads.  As  we  drove  to  the  county  seat,  a  city  which  aspires 
to  be  at  some  time  a  very  great  city,  we  were  dragged  through  mud  so 
deep  that  on  coming  to  the  crossing  of  the  city  streets  it  took  two 
of  us  to  lift  the  front  wheels  of  the  buggy  while  the  horse  pulled  it 
over,  and  I  was  not  surprised,  after  being  brushed  and  washed,  to  find 
that  I  had  been  taken  there  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  address  on 
Good  Roads.  Neither  was  I  surprised  to  find  the  people  hostile  to  my 
interference,  and  at  having  people  coming  to  them  from  other  cities  to 
tell  them  how  to  build  roads,  and  they  living  right  there.  Knowing  it 
was  a  difficult  subject  to  broach,  I  started  in  with  a  little  talk  on  how 
large  cities  grew,  attempting  to  appeal  to  the  pride  of  the  citizens  of 
that  city,  and  get  their  co-operation  in  the  matter  of  road  building,  and 
to  get  them  to  understand  that  good  roads  were  the  vitals  and  essence 
of  success  and  that  they  must  have  good  roads  if  they  would  grow. 
Doing  that,  we  started  away  off,  and  approached  them  gently,  and 
I  am  pleased  to  say  we  parted  without  any  scars  upon  us,  in  fact, 
with  the  good  will  of  the  community,  and  Mr.  Hill  being  pleased 
with  the  prelude,  asked  me  to  write  it  down  and  tell  it  to  this  Congress, 
so  that  others  might  have  some  similar  means  of  making  peace  with 
their  community. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  71 

HOW  AND  WHY  CITIES  GROW. 

BY  REGINALD  H.  THOMSON. 
Gentlemen : 

From  .the  earliest  dawn  of  history  men  have  inclined  to  associate 
themselves  together  in  those  assemblages  which  we  call  cities. 
The  purpose  of  the  first  city  building  is  not  clearly  defined  in  his- 
tory, but  the  purpose  of  the  village  is  well  understood.  For  many 
centuries  the  village  was  occupied  by  those  neighbors  collected  to- 
gether in  close  relationship  one  to  the  other,  for  the  purposes  of 
companionship  and  protection,  so  that  from  the  beginning  the  vil- 
lage has  been,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  camp  or  stronghold.  Some 
of  the  large  cities  of  the  past  were  built  at  enormous  expense  for 
military  purposes,  strategic  centers  of  military  control  having  been 
chosen,  and  the  city  located  with  reference  to  its  relationship  to  the 
territory  to  be  governed.  Other  cities  grew  wholly  from  commer- 
cial enterprise,  and  it  is  this  class  which  has  endured  through  time, 
which  continues  to  maintain  its  identity,  and  with  reference  to 
which  I  am  expected  to  speak.  The  growth  of  such  cities  is,  to  the 
minds  of  many,  an  unsolved  mystery,  and  they  are  frequently  look- 
ed upon  as  accidental  occurrences,  and  it  is  possible  that  there  are 
some  cities  of  considerable  size  for  which  the  cause  underlying 
their  growth  would  be  hard  to  determine.  Nevertheless  it  has 
been  well  affirmed  that  commercial  cities  grow  by  immutable  law, 
even  though  they  may  appear  to  grow  by  accident ;  yet,  although 
they  may  grow  by  immutable  law,  as  in  every  other  thing  in  which 
man  is  interested,  man  can  either  aid  or  hinder  that  development 
which  the  law  permits. 

Under  the  law  of  the  body,  the  heart  drives  the  life  blood  into 
every  part  for  its  proportional  and  symmetrical  growth ;  yet,  as  the 
result  of  disease  or  other  disturbance,  the  arteries  leading  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  body  may  become  choked,  and  the  flow  of 
blood  to  those  parts  may  be  so  diminished  in  quantity  as  to  permit 
those  portions  so  deprived  of  food  to  shrivel.  Lack  of  food  or  im- 
paired digestion  also  may  cause  the  impoverishing  or  the  wasting 
away  of  the  entire  body.  In  the  same  manner  and  to  the  same 
extent,  the  impairing  of  the  arterial  highways  leading  to,  or  those 
within,  a  city,  or  the  permitting  of  unsanitary  conditions  to  exist 
in  or  near  a  city,  may  cause  its  destruction,  as  similar  conditions 
destroy  the  body. 

For  long  ages  it  was  impossible  for  the  city,  except  under  the 
most  peculiarly  favorable  circumstances,  to  advance  beyond  the 
size  of  a  village,  or  to  exercise  functions  other  than  that  of  the 
village,  as  we  now  understand  the  term.  During  the  greater  part 
of  the  period  of  history  there  has  been  somewhere  upon  the  face 
of  the  earth  some  collection  of  houses  sufficiently  large  of  itself 
to  be  styled  a  city;  but  this  collection  has  usually  been  the  seat 
of  government,  and  as  such  was  made  and  maintained,  so  long  as  it 
existed,  by  the  forces  which  maintained  the  government.  Follow- 


Y2  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

ing  the  chronology  of  the  ages,  we  find  some  periods  in  which  no 
city  of  any  size  whatever  is  indicated.  Possibly  there  was  a  city 
existing  somewhere  as  a  seat  of  government,  of  which  the  record 
has  not  yet  been  made  clear.  Some  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago,  in  a 
discussion  of  this  subject,  the  expression  was  used,  "This  is  the 
age  of  great  cities."  Even  at  that  time,  the  size  of  a  great  city  as 
we  now  understand  it  was  not  comprehended,  because  the  two 
great  models  of  cities  from  which  comparisons  could  then  be  made 
were  Paris  and  London,  and  even  at  the  time  of  making  this  remark 
London  did  not  contain  over  a  million  and  a  half  people,  so  that 
to  the  mind  of  speaker  and  hearer  the  thought  of  the  age  of  great 
cities  was  the  thought  of  an  age  in  which  there  could  be  one  or 
possibly  two  cities  in  the  world  with  a  population  of  a  million  and 
a  half  people,  and  also  a  number  of  a  smaller  size,  some  of  which 
might  aggregate  six  hundred  thousand  people  in  population.  To 
make  that  same  remark  to-day,  to  wit,  that  this  is  the  age  of 
great  cities,  conveys  to  the  minds  of  hearers  a  different  impression, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  they  would  immediately  see  in  their  mind's 
eye  a  vision  of  a  city  of  more  than  six  millions  population,  and 
visions  of  nearly  a  score  of  cities  containing  one  million  and  over, 
and  many  more  than  a  score  of  cities  containing  half  a  million  and 
over. 

Until  recently  there  was  manufactured  in  the  village  practically 
all  of  those  things  incidental  to  the  life  and  the  subsistence  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  for  them  only.  Where  more  materials  were  manu- 
factured than  filled  the  measure  of  local  necessity,  those  villages 
became  cities  and  centers  of  trade.  The  number  of  such,  until 
very  recent  times,  however,  was  very  limited,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  manufacture  and  distribution  in  each  village  was  usually 
intended  to  be,  and  was,  sufficient  only  for  the  necessities  of  its 
immediate  vicinity.  As  we  look  back  upon  the  long  series  of 
centuries  during  which  this  condition  prevailed,  we  style  those  ages 
"the  ages  of  the  homespun,"  and,  looking  upon  the  conditions  of 
the  present,  we  find  ourselves,  not  only  in  "an  age  of  great  cities," 
but  in  "the  age  of  the  wholesale,"  there  being  manufactured  in 
one  city  all  of  the  goods  of  a  certain  kind  needful  for  and  used  by 
the  inhabitants  of  many  cities  and  villages.  The  change  from  the 
age  of  the  homespun  to  the  age  of  the  wholesale  was  made  un- 
wittingly. In  the  year  1788,  James  Watt,  with  his  partner,  Boulton, 
after  considerable  effort,  persuaded  the  proprietors  of  the  Albion 
Mills  in  London  to  begin  the  operation  of  their  mills  with  one  of 
their  engines,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  this  was  the  first  application 
of  steam  to  actual  manufacture  ever  made,  and  on  the  day  that 
Watt  &  Boulton's  engine  first  turned  the  burrs  of  the  Albion  Mills 
the  gates  were  opened  and  the  human  race  began  to  pass,  as  I  have 
said,  unwittingly  and  unconsciously,  from  "the  age  of  the  home- 
spun" to  "the  age  of  the  wholesale,"  and  from  that  hour  until  this 
there  has  been  an  intensifying  of  conditions  of  every  class  and 
kind,  dependent  upon  certain  fixed  laws.  Philosophers  have  laid 
down  the  ritle  that  in  these  days  villages  may  still  continue  as 
friendly  associations  of  citizens,  and  possibly  as  remnants  of  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  73 

age  of  the  homespun,  but  that  cities  grow  only  where  there  is  (a) 
"Cheap  Bread"  and  (b)  "Good  Sanitation,"  and,  added  to  this,  for 
permanence  and  stability,  there  must  be  (c)  Stable  Government 
and  (d)  Honest  Tradesmen.  Stability  of  government  is  neces- 
sary that  there  may  be  security  to  the  investments  made  for  the 
purpose  of  manufacture  and  commerce,  and  honesty  of  tradesmen 
must  be  had  in  order  that  there  may  be  confidence  in  the  breast  of 
both  producer  and  consumer;  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  pro- 
ducer that  goods  committed  to  the  hands  of  the  tradesmen  will  be 
honestly  accounted  for,  and  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
sumer that  the  goods  transmitted  to  them  as  the  result  of  orders 
will  be  the  identical  goods  designated  in  the  bill.  Admitting, 
therefore,  that  in  a  certain  locality  there  exist  the  two  latter  con- 
ditions, "Stability  of  Government"  and  "Honesty  of  Tradesmen," 
we  are  still  obliged  to  inquire  as  to  the  relationship  which  cheap 
bread  and  good  sanitation  holds,  or  may  hold,  thereto. 

By  "Cheap  Bread"  it  is  understood  that  in  the  given  community 
the  cost  of  living  in  comparison  with  the  daily  wage  is  for  some 
reason  less  than  at  other  points.  This  economy  of  living  will  in 
great  measure  be  dependent  upon  the  relationship  of  the  locality  to 
the  various  sources  of  production,  and  this  relationship  is  dependent 
almost  entirely  upon  the  cost  of  transportation  between  the  given 
city  and  the  sources  of  production.  There  might  be  ever  so  stable 
a  government  and  ever  so  honest  tradesmen  in  a  given  locality, 
and  they  might  be  ever  so  zealous  for  the  upbuilding  and  the 
development  of  their  territory;  but  if  there  were  no  means  of  easy 
access  to  that  city,  if  the  highways  leading  thereto  were  such  as 
to  prevent  the  most  economical  delivery  of  goods  to  or  removal 
of  manufactures  from  its  gates,  it  could  not  thrive.  The  highways, 
therefore,  become  prime,  if  not  supreme,  controlling  factors  in  the 
growth  of  a  great  city.  In  the  consideration  of  the  highways 
affecting  a  locality,  we  must  take  into  account  the  following: 

1.  The  highway  of  the  nations — the  Sea. 

2.  Rivers. 

3.  Canals. 

4.  Roadways,  such  as  public  roads. 

5.  Railways. 

There  are  some  great  cities  not  located  upon  the  highway  of  the 
nations,  the  Sea,  and  which  are  not  even  easily  tributary  thereto  $ 
but  we  will  find  that  they  have  generally  been  built  as  govern- 
mental centers  and  maintained  under  peculiar  conditions.  The 
great  cities  of  the  world,  in  the  past  and  to-day,  are  those  which 
have  the  most  easy  and  the  most  direct  means  of  access  to  the 
ocean,  or  are  located  upon  some  great  inland  lake  or  sea,  or  at  the 
confluence  of  freight-bearing  streams.  Possibly  the  most  notable 
modern  example  of  the  rapid  development  and  existence  of  a  great 
city  supposed  to  be  not  located  upon  any  great  natural  stream  or 
waterway  is  Berlin.  This  city  is  often  represented  as  having 
sprung  from  the  barren  sands  of  Prussia.  A  careful  examination  of 
its  conditions,  however,  reveals  the  fact  that  this  city,  for  its  finan- 


74  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

cial  and  commercial  life,  is  dependent  upon  its  highways,  in  part 
upon  roads  and  railways,  but  chiefly  upon  highways  of  water; 
these,  in  this  case,  being  canals.  History  records  the  fact  that  in 
1640  Berlin  had  but  about  6,000  souls,  but  that  about  that  time 
Frederick  William,  by  the  construction  of  a  canal  from  the  Spree 
to  the  Oder,  "caused  Berlin  to  become  an  important  center  of 
foreign  commerce  and  shipbuilding,"  and  that  he  further  laid  the 
foundation  of  its  prosperity  by  encouraging  the  settlement  there, 
as  the  necessary  "honest  tradesmen"  of  the  land,  of  Huguenot 
refugees  from  France,  'guaranteeing  to  them  peace  and  tranquillity, 
so  that,  in  the  case  of  Berlin,  its  growth  arose  from  its  relationship 
to  foreign  commerce,  and  its  stability  of  government,  aided  by 
honest  tradesmen  and  good  sanitation ;  but  the  vital  life  of  its 
commerce  has  been,  and  is,  dependent  upon  the  cheapness  of  its 
water-borne  freight — that  is  to  say,  its  "Cheap  Bread." 

What  might  be  deemed  a  favorable  relation  to  the  sea  for  the 
location  of  a  city  of  to-day  might  be  very  different  from  what  it 
was  one  hundred  years  ago.  Probably  until  that  day  'there  had 
been  no  more  favorable  relation  of  the  sea  and  land  had  by  any 
city  than  that  which  had  been  enjoyed  by  those  great  cities  which 
once  flourished  on  the  Mediterranean.  About  one  hundred  and  fif- 
ty years  B.  C.,  there  flourished  near  its  shores  Antioch,  on  the 
Orontes,  Alexandria,  Carthage,  and  Rome.  Besides  these,  there 
were  Tyre  and  Corinth,  and  others  of  equal  or  lesser  size.  Carth- 
age boasted  of  700,000  souls,  Rome  of  500,000,  Antioch  of  400,000, 
and  Alexandria  of  300,000.  They  lived  and  grew  under  the  same 
laws  of  growth  which  we  now  affirm  as  governing  city  develop- 
ment. Each  had  access  to  the  fertile  fields  surrounding  the  shores 
of  the  great  inland  sea.  Each  (for  purposes  of  war,  it  is  true)  had 
builded  magnificent  roadways  within  their  own  limits  and  to  far 
distant  lands.  Each  had  developed  wondrous  water  systems  and 
sewers,  some  of  which  remain  until  this  day.  They  lived,  each  and 
all  of  them,  under  the  law  of  "Cheap  Bread"  and  "Good  Sanita- 
tion," re-enforced  by  stable  government  and  popular  tradesmen. 
This  was  the  first  age  of  great  cities ;  for  of  a  truth  we  are  now 
in  the  second  age,  and  this  age  is  dependent  upon  the  successful 
harnessing  of  new,  and  to  them  unknown,  forces  of  nature,  all 
springing  from  and  dating  from  the  successful  installation  of  the 
steam  engine  referred  to  above. 

After  the  experimental  stage  in  the  use  of  the  engine  installed  in 
the  Albion  Mills  by  WTatt  &  Boulton  had  been  passed,  it  became 
evident  that,  where  steam  could  be  used,  enormous  quantities  of 
grain  or  other  goods  could  be  handled  at  one  place  and  with  much 
less  expense;  that  is  to  say,  that  at  that  place  there  would  be 
"Cheap  Bread."  To  encourage  the  importation  of  grain  and  other 
raw  materials  from  the  rural  districts  to  those  places  of  cheap  man- 
ufacture, canals  were  improved,  highways  developed,  and  the  inven- 
tive genius  of  man  presently  brought  forth  the  steamboat  and  the 
locomotive,  each  the  bearers  of  burdens  to  and  from  the  favorable 
centers  of  manufacture  and  distribution.  For  example,  with  the 
larger  and  more  speedy  vessels  on  the  sea,  and  with  the  favorable 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  75 

waters  of  the  Thames  as  a  harbor,  and  with  the  inland  canals  and 
macadam  highways  to  and  from  London,  it  now  had  the  oppor- 
tunity to,  and  did,  outstrip  Carthage  and  Rome  and  the  other 
cities  of  the  Mediterranean  in  its  manufacturing  and  commercial 
institutions,  although  giving  less  attention  to  other  features  of 
municipal  life  than  did  they.  Death  by  plague  and  by  other  con- 
tagious diseases  had  in  times  past  visited  London  with  disastrous 
results,  and  to  prevent  their  recurrence  the  mind  of  man  was  given 
to  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  life,  and  as  a  result  the  laws  of 
health  were  more  fully  developed  than  they  ever  had  been  there- 
tofore, and  as  the  population  of  the  city  grew  the  ability  to  con- 
tinue'in  growth  was  safeguarded  by  this  better  and  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  life. 

The  highway,  however,  which  brings  the  freight  to  the  city,  is 
not  the  only  one  that  is  essential  to  its  life  and  best  development; 
but  the  means  of  intercourse  between  the  various  parts  of  the  city 
must  be  made  especially  easy,  so  that  freight  which  has  been 
brought  from  afar,  on  good  roads  or  by  water  carriage,  at  a  mini- 
mum of  cost,  shall  not  have  its  value  destroyed  by  the  tax  imposed 
in  conveying  it  from  the  terminal  of  the  long-distance  haul  to  the 
place  of  manufacture.  This  requires  the  making  of  arterial  high 
ways  through  the  city,  so  as  to  bring  freights  arriving  over  any 
route  or  by  any  conveyance  actually  to  the  factory  door  at  the  least 
possible  cost,  both  for  the  purposes  of  delivery  and  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  results  of  manufacture.  These  arteries  may  be  road- 
ways, or  they  may  be  canals,  or  they  may  be  railways.  As  a  rule, 
for  actual  success  as  seen  in  the  world's  marts,  there  must  be  all 
of  these  forms  of  highways  present,  and  suited  to  the  carrying  of 
the  heaviest  burdens  at  the  least  cost.  None  of  them  can  be  lightly 
neglected  by  those  who  would  prevail.  With  these  present,  that  is  to 
say,  after  the  freight  has  been  cheaply  delivered  and  the  raw  material 
is  ready  to  be  converted  into  the  manufactured  product,  if  the 
workmen  be  not  strong  and  quick,  if  the  vital  blood  of  life  course 
not  freely  through  their  veins,  if  there  be  some  other  locality,  of 
reasonably  equal  position  as  to  the  handling  of  freight,  where  man's 
mind  is  more  active  and  his  fingers  more  nimble,  that  locality  will 
certainly  become  the  greater  center  of  manufacture.  These  condi- 
tions of  active  body  and  active  mind  depend  upon  good  sanitation. 
'Good  Sanitation  is  dependent  primarily  upon  climatic,  and  secon- 
darily upon  artificial,  conditions,  which  artificial  conditions  are 
equally,  if  not  more,  important  than  are  the  climatic.  Every  wprk- 
man  engaged  in  the  battle  of  life  must  be  able,  as  part  of  his  daily 
food,  to  enjoy  the  use  of  a  reasonable  supply  of  good  water.  This 
is  the  first  requisite  of  good  sanitation ;  and,  second,  there  must  be 
provision  for  the  immediate  removal  and  proper  disposal  of  the 
wastes  of  the  body;  and,  third,  as  the  final  and  equal  prerequisites 
of  the  ability  to  maintain  and  to  continue  good  sanitation,  there 
must  be  in  the  city  perfect  streets  and  perfect  drainage.  I  have 
referred  to  the  great  change  made  in  Berlin,  their  first  sewers  hav- 
ing been  built  in  1882;  death  rate  then  36  per  1,000  now  about  16 
per  1,000.  As  long  as  any  city  maintains  filthy  streets,  it  will  be 


76  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

subject  to  the  recurrence  of  most  deadly  and  appalling  outbreaks 
of  devastating  disease.  As  soon  as  hard  surface  streets  and  fair 
sewers  are  laid  down,  new  vigor  comes  to  its  inhabitants  and  the 
span  of  their  lives  is  lengthened. 

After  a  city  has  become  established,  the  law  of  gravity  tends  to 
add  to  its  population.  There  will  be  those  who  will  be  attracted 
thither  simply  because  of  its  size,  as  compared  with  some  other 
place  had  in  mind.  Others  will  be  attracted  because  of  the  pres- 
ence of  congenial  spirits ;  the  more  of  the  class,  the  more  attractive 
to  those  of  the  kind.  For  instance,  a  coterie  of  artists  will  attract 
other  artists,  and  so  on ;  each  group  or  class  drawing  others  of 
their  kind. .  This  law  of  gravity  works  continuously  and  persist- 
ently ;  but  the  effectiveness  even  of  the'  application  of  the  law  of 
gravity  upon  city  growth  is  limited  by  its  fulfillment  of  the  require- 
ments for  "Cheap  Bread"  and  "Good  Sanitation." 

The  Good  Roads  Association  specializes  its  labors  toward  mak- 
ing and  maintaining  good  roadways.  The  value  of  such  roadways 
is  frequently  computed  purely  with  reference  to  the  economy  of 
the  delivery  of  suburban  or  foreign  products  and  general  freight 
movements.  Probably  this  resultant  of  a  good  roadway  is  dwelt 
upon  more  than  any  other,  because  it  is  believed  that  this  particu- 
lar view  will  appeal  to  the  mind  of  those  who  must  bear  the  cost 
and  burden  of  constructing  them  more  strongly  than  any  other 
argument.  I  am  not  sure  that  this  is  the  highest  use  of  these  road- 
ways. They  are  the  arteries  of  the  community,  and  they  cannot 
be  maintained  unless  they  be  clean,  and  with  every  step  that  is 
taken  toward  developing  the  hard  surfaces  of  well-prepared  roads 
there  is  a  step  taken  toward  the  higher  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
development  of  the  community.  It  is  an  element  both  of  Cheap 
Bread  and  Good  Sanitation.  It  is  an  element  vital  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  community,  and  they  who  are  engaged  in  the  advocacy 
of  their  construction  are  truly  engaged  in  a  warfare  against  disease, 
against  poverty,  against  crime,  and  in  behalf  of  health,  vitality, 
and  virtue. 


AFTERNOON  SESSION. 

The  first  paper  read  at  the  afternoon  session  was  on  the  subject  of 
"The  Farmer  and  the  Road,"  by  Mr.  F.  N.  Godfrey,  of  New  York. 

In  introducing  his  subject  Mr.  Godfrey  said  that  great  changes 
had  taken  place  since  the  introduction  of  the  automobile.  He  said : 

When  the  automobiles  first  made  their  appearance  on  our  roads, 
they  frightened  our  horses;  but  the  farmers  have  now  come  to 
recognize  the  automobile  as  any  other  vehicle,  and  our  horses  have 
also  grown  to  recognize  the  automobile,  and  not  to  fear  it,  as  they 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  77 

did  at  first.  A  few  years  ago  we  would  drive  a  horse  out  on  the 
road,  and  it  was  actually  risking  our  lives  to  meet  an  automobile ; 
but  to-day  we  take  a  colt  out  of  the  field,  and  he  fears  it  no  more 
than  the  people,  sometimes  not  half  as  much. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  Is  that  due  to  the  difference  in  the  road 
surface,  or  the  training  of  the  horse?  (Laughter.) 

Mr.  Godfrey :    On  account  of  the  horses  getting  used  to  it. 

Mr.  Thomson:  Not  because  of  the  improvement  of  the  roads. 
(Laughter.) 

Mr.  Godfrey:  I  broke  a  horse  to  drive  this  spring,  and  it  was  a 
surprise  to  me  when  we  drove  on  the  highway  that  the  mare  feared 
an  automobile  no  more  than  another  horse  or  vehicle.  She  had  no 
fear  of  the  trolleys  when  we  drove  into  the  city.  I  attribute  this 
to  the  horse  being  raised  alongside  of  the  highways  and  becoming 
used  to  it. 

THE  FARMER  AND  THE  ROAD. 

The  problem  of  highways  has  probably  concerned  the  farmers 
of  this  country  more  than  any  other  class  of  people,  inasmuch  as 
upon  them  alone,  for  many  years,  devolved  the  building  and  main- 
taining of  the  roads.  From  the  old  tortuous  wood  roads,  following 
the  streams  very  largely,  or  a  blazed  trail  over  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains, the  corduroys  and  slab  ways  through  the  swamps  and  low- 
lands, to  the  present  good  and  improved  highways,  graded  and 
straightened  almost  to  the  grade  of  a  steam  railroad,  the  farmers 
have  largely  been  the  factor  bearing  the  burden  of  expense,  and 
therefore  the  ones  most  to  be  reckoned  with. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country  the  blazed  trail  and  first 
wagon  roads  were  winding  and  long,  often  making  the  distance 
double  that  that  now  is,  as  the  country  has  been  cleared  and  the 
roads  straightened  and  graded.  As  the  country  was  settled  and 
new  farms  were  opened  up,  new  highways  were  built  without  much 
thought  as  to  grade  and  line,  and  to-day  we  have  in  many  states, 
especially  in  the  East,  very  crooked  and  irregular  roads.  Gradually 
the  sentiment  for  better  and  improved  roads  has  grown.  The 
coming  of  the  bicycle  started  the  movement  with  greater  celerity 
than  any  other  one  thing  for  many  years.  Then  the  arrival  of 
the  automobile  has  no  doubt  culminated  in  the  climax  of  road  im- 
provement, by  creating  a  greater  interest  with  the  whole  people, 
until  all  are  ready  to  lend  a  hand  in  the  improvement  of  the  high- 
ways. 

The  farmers  at  first  have  been  loth  to  favor  the  more  expensive 
improvement  of  the  roads,  believing  the  movement  was  largely  in 
the  interest  of  the  manufacturer  and  users  of  automobiles;  but, 


78  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

be  that  as  it  may,  as  soon  as  an  improved  road  is  properly  con- 
structed through  a  farming  section,  the  farmer  is  brought  at  once 
to  see  the  value  of  it  in  the  great  advantage  to  him  in  the  move- 
ment of  his  produce  to  market,  and,  since  the  whole  people  are 
assisting  in  the  expense,  we  farmers  are  withdrawing  our  objec- 
tions and  are  very  willing  to  assist. 

Taking  up  the  improvement  of  the  highways,  let  me  emphasize 
this  fact :  That  the  market  roads  should  be  the  first  to  be  im- 
proved, thus  bringing  about  greater  prosperity  to  the  country,  by 
reducing  the  cost  of  marketing  the  enormous  products  of  the  soil, 
in  lessening  the  cost  of  hauling  to  shipping  points  and  nearby  mar- 
kets. Later  the  trunk  lines  may  be  connected  up,  to  accommodate 
the  wealthy  seeker  of  pleasure  in  touring  the  country  with  the 
automobile.  It  is  the  laboring  man,  the  great  producer  of  the 
country,  those  who  must  use  the  highways  every  day  of  the  year, 
whose  interests  must  be  looked  to  first  if  the  prosperity  of  this 
country  is  to  continue.  The  pleasure  seeker,  who  uses  the  roads 
only  during  the  summer  months  and  for  pleasure  only,  finds  but 
little  trouble  now  on  the  highways,  even  if  only  dirt  roads,  if  they 
are  contented  in  driving  their  machines  at  a  reasonable  rate  of 
speed. 

In  the  construction  of  the  improved  roads  of  the  country  I  must 
speak  more  especially  of  those  of  my  own  state,  knowing  more  of 
the  situation  there  than  anywhere  else.  Until  about  twenty  years 
ago  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  highways  were  almost 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  farmers  and  owners  of  property  adja- 
cent thereto ;  they  being  taxed  at  the  rate  of  a  day's  work  for  each 
five  hundred  dollars  of  assessed  valuation,  the  work  in  the  different 
towns  being  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  highway  commis- 
sioner, and  subdivided  into  districts  under  an  officer  called  the 
pathmaster,  who  ordered  the  farmers  and  those  liable  to  road  tax 
out  to  work  the  roads  as  time  and  convenience  suited  him.  It  was 
quite  often  made  a  sort  of  gala  day  for  a  round-up  of  the  neighbors, 
with  but  little  real  work  done.  There  were  notable  exceptions, 
however,  where  the  farmers  took  pride  in  improving  the  road, 
gradually  shaming  those  who  cared  but  little  for  a  good  highway, 
till  a  decided  improvement  of  the  roads  was  becoming  noticeable. 

Then  came  the  road  scraper,  first  a  square  stick,  of  timber  with 
an  old  upright  sawplate  attached.  This  was  an  excellent  tool  for 
smoothing  the  roads  in  the  spring  and  filling  up  the  ruts.  Then 
the  wheel  scraper  or  grader  came  into  use,  and  in  the  hands  of  an 
intelligent  and  skillful  man  is  an  excellent  tool  still  largely  in  use 
on  dirt  roads,  but  in  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  and  unskilled  does 
more  harm  than  good. 

About  twenty  years  ago  the  law  was  changed  so  that  corpora- 
tions must  pay  a  highway  tax,  which  brought  into  the  towns  a  little 
more  labor  on  highways,  that  helped  improve  them.  , 

Then  came  in  1898  the  Higbie-Armstrong  Act,  which  provided 
that  the  state  should  aid  in  building  and  improving  such  roads  as 
the  county  and  towns  decided  on,  the  state  paying  50  per  cent.,  the 
county  35  per  cent.,  and  the  town  15  per  cent.,  and  about  two  thou- 


- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

sand  miles  of  road  have  been  improved  under  this  act,  called  the 
"Bonding  Act." 

In  1903  the  Fuller-Plank  Act,  providing  state  aid  to  such  towns 
as  preferred  to  change  from  the  old  labor  system  to  a  moneyed 
system,  placing  the  work  in-  the  hands  of  the  highway  commis- 
sioner to  expend  the  moneys  devoted  to  this  purpose  as  his  judg- 
ment dictated.  This  act  provided  for  the  payment  by  the  state  of 
fifty  cents  on  each  dollar  raised  by  the  towns.  This  method  has 
proved  of  great  value  in  the  greater  improvement  of  the  roads,  as  in 
the  hands  of  intelligent  men  selected  as  highway  commissioners 
a  more  uniform  system  was  begun  and  carried  out. 

The  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  now  well  known  and  commonly 
called  the  Grange,  having  become  a  strong  organization  in  New 
York,  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  directing  legislation  in  the 
interest  of  agriculture,  began  to  study  the  road  question,  and,  feel- 
ing that  the  laws  along  this  line  could  be  improved,  favored  the 
placing  of  the  improvement  of  the  highways  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 
mission, instead  of  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Engineer.  I 
ought  to  have  said  that  the  Higbie-Armstrong  Act  provided  for 
the  bonding  of  the  state  for  fifty  million  dollars  to  the  improvement 
of  the  roads.  In  1906-07  the  Grange  prepared  and  introduced 
amendments  to  the  Armstrong  and  Fuller-Plank  measures,  provid- 
ing for  a  graduated  scale  of  assistance  to  the  several  towns  of  the 
state  according  to  the  assessed  valuation  per  mile  of  the  highways 
the  town  contained.  These  measures  were  found  practicable  and 
valuable,  and  were  passed  and  became  laws.  It  was  found  at  this 
time  that  the  Bonding  Act  was  unconstitutional,  and  that  no  one 
would  take  the  bonds  of  the  state  for  the  improvement  of  the  high- 
ways. So  the  Grange  came  to  the  rescue  by  preparing  a  bonding 
bill  wihich  was  declared  sound,  and  this  was  passed  by  the  same 
Legislature  and  received  the  approval  of  the  Governor.  At  this 
time  it  was  thought  best  that  a  committee  of  the  Legislature  be  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  highway  situation  and  report  to  the  next 
Legislature.  Such  committee  was  appointed,  and  in  their  report 
they  advised  a  revision  of  the  highway  laws,  which  was  done,  at 
the  next  session,  that  of  1907-08,  recommending  also  a  highway 
commission.  The  laws  advocated  by  the  Grange  and  passed  were 
incorporated  in  the  Revised  Laws,  and  now  the  improvement  of  the 
roads  of  New  York  state  is  under  the  direction  of  a  highway  com- 
mission of  three  members,  appointed  by  the  Governor  in  January, 
1909.  The  commission  thus  appointed  is  required  to  select  and 
appoint  two  deputies ;  the  duties  of  the  first  deputy  being  the  care 
and  maintenance  of  improved  roads,  and  the  duties  of  the  second 
deputy  are  the  care  and  supervision  of  unimproved  roads  and  the 
highway  bridges  of  the  state. 

There  are  about  80,000  miles  of  public  highway  in  the  state  of 
New  York,  and  not  to  exceed  10,000  miles  can  be  improved  under 
the  fifty  million  bond  issue.  Seventy  thousand  miles  must,  there- 
fore, be  improved  by  the  towns,  with  the  aid  of  the  state,  under  the 
direction  of  the  deputy  in  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  Town  Highways. 
The  appropriation  by  the  towns  for  the  maintenance  of  these  70,000 


80  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

miles  of  public  highways,  or  the  amount  of  money  raised  by  tax 
in  the  towns  for  the  maintenance  of  these  70,000  miles,  is  about 
$3,500,000,  and  the  moneys  paid  by  the  state  to  aid  the  towns  on 
the  Grange  plan  is  about  $1,500,000.  In  the  care  of  earth  roads  the 
state  is  divided  into  9  districts,  presided  over  by  9  district  super- 
visors. There  are  57  district  or  county  superintendents  of  high- 
ways, appointed  by  the  board  of  supervisors  of  each  county  in  the 
state,  making  a  second  subdivision,  and  under  the  district  or  county 
superintendents  there  are  933  town  superintendents.  According  to 
the  best  information  obtainable  before  I  left  New  York  state,  the 
second  deputy  commissioner  stated  that  there  are  between  24,000 
and  30,000  men  and  between  5,000  and  6,000  teams  employed  in 
caring  for  .the  earth  roads  of  the  state. 

The  annual  cost  for  the  repair  and  construction  of  bridges  in  the 
state  of  New  York  is  about  $1,400,000.  The  amount  of  money 
annually  expended  for  the  purchase  and  repair  of  machinery  is 
about  three-quarters  of  a  million,  and  the  amount  expended  for  the 
removal  of  obstructions  caused  by  snow  and  other  miscellaneous 
purposes  is  a  little  over  half  a  million  dollars  per  year. 

There  are  about  2,000  miles  of  road  that  have  been  constructed 
under  the  Bonding  Act.  These  roads  are  mostly  macadam  high- 
ways ;  but  there  are  6,000  miles  of  crushed  stone  or  macadam 
roads  constructed  by  the  .towns  in  addition  thereto,  and  also  about 
8,000  miles  of  road  which  have  been  surfaced  with  gravel  by  the 
towns  with  the  aid  of  the  state.  There  are  a  trifle  over  300  miles 
which  are  being  constructed  at  the  present  time,  making  a  sum 
total  in  the  neighborhood  of  2,500  miles  of  state  and  county  roads 
which  will  be  completed  during  the  year  1909.  Add  this  to  the 
6,000  miles  of  stone  roads  built  by  the  towns  and  the  8,000  miles  of 
gravel  roads,  and  we  have  to-day  in  the  state  of  New  York  16,500 
miles  of  improved  roads.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  at  least  between 
30,000  and  40,000  miles  of  road  in  addition  thereto  have  been 
shaped  and  crowned  or  turnpiked,  so  to  speak,  so  that  within  the 
bounds  of  the  Empire  State  we  have  a  system  of  improved  roads 
involving  between  50,000  and  60,000  miles  of  highway. 

The  farmers  of  New  York  state  feel  that  too  much  'money  is  be- 
ing expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  highways  for  the  kind  of 
highways  we  are  getting.  There  is  too  much  red  tape,  too  many 
incompetent  men  engaged  as  inspectors,  etc.,  too  much  money  ex- 
pended in  preliminary  work,  such  as  surveying,  mapping,  and  office 
work,  too  little  attention  given  to  preparing  the  foundation  and 
drainage.  The  question  of  drainage  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
of  all,  for  without  proper  and  sufficient  drainage  no  method  of 
road  construction  can  ever  be  made  successful.  Surface  drainage 
will  not  suffice  in  making  a  permanent  road  in  most  sections.  Tile 
or  underdrainage  must  be  the  system,  before  permanency  will  be 
maintained.  The  larger  number  of  our  highways  must  still  be  dirt 
or  gravel  for  ages  to  come,  and  a  large  proportion  of  these  can  be 
made  almost  as  good  as  macadam,  most  of  the  year,  by  properly 
tiling  them,  and  no  money  can  be  expended  to  greater  advantage 
than  in  tiling.  Surface  drains  soon  fill  with  slush  and  snow  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  81 

refuse,  which  hold  the  water,  permitting  it -to  permeate  the  road 
bed,  which  softens  it  and  allows  the  frost  to  penetrate.  Even  the 
macadam  or  Telford  will  not  stand  frost,  but  which  by  proper  tiling 
will  keep  the  roadbed  dry  and  hard. 

The  highways  of  the  country  are  of  vastly  more  importance  than 
the  so-called  waterways,  which  are  receiving  so  much  attention 
just  now.  The  deep  waterways,  such  as  the  Great  Lake  system  and 
such  rivers  as  are  by  nature  deep  and  navigable,  should  be  main- 
tained ;  but  transportation  by  water  on  canals  and  streams  that 
have  to  be  maintained  by  state  and  nation  at  enormous  expense  are 
antiquated  and  slow,  and  should  be  relegated  to  the  past.  The 
highways,  railroads,  and  deep  natural  waterways  should  and  must 
be  maintained,  and  the  whole  people  should  help  to  do  this.  Per- 
haps in  the  near  future  we  shall  have  the  new  and  modern  method 
of  transportation  to  cope  with,  and  laws  will  have  to  be  enacted 
controlling  the  navigation  by  air  through  the  great  Milky  Way. 

The  Grange,  the  great  farmers'  organization,  stands  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  highways  of  this  country  through  national  aid, 
believing  the  national  government  can  do  no  greater  work  toward 
the  prosperity  of  this  great  country  than  that  of  improving  the 
highways,  thus  aiding  the  greatest  industry  of  the  country  in  trans- 
porting to  the  markets  the  magnificent  and  bounteous  products  of 
nature  at  the  lowest  possible  cost  and  yielding  to  the  producer  the 
profits  entitled  therefrom. 

Mr.  Godfrey,  during  the  reading  of  his  paper,  interpolated  sev- 
eral instructive  remarks-  For  example,  he  said : 

I  was  the  first  one  to  introduce  the  square-timber  drag  or  scraper 
into  our  community,  and  we  were  ridiculed  and  laughed  at,  saying 
that  it  would  do  more  damage  than  good,  and  from  that  square 
stick  of  timber  came  the  road  scraper,  which  is  being  used  in  our 
community  very  intelligently. 

I  have  noticed  in  former  addresses  at  this  convention  that  very 
little  has  been  said  about  tiling.  All  speak  of  drainage  and  good 
foundation ;  but  they  have  neglected  a  very  important  point  in  not 
considering  the  subject  of  subdrainage  or  tile  drainage  more  thor- 
oughly. No  good  road  can  be  maintained  on  level  land — that  is, 
land  that  is  ordinarily  level — by  shallow  surface  drains  through 
our  section.  The  surface  drain  gets  filled  with  snow  and  refuse 
during  the  winter  time,  and  it  fills  with  slush  and  water  soaking  in, 
instead  of  running  off,  and  the  soil  underneath  the  macadam  be- 
comes permeated  with  moisture  and  wet,  and  away  goes  the  road. 
Miles  of  road  have  been  destroyed  by  neglecting  to  take  care  of 
the  water;  and,  while  they  put  their  surface  drains,  this  does  not 
take  care  of  the  water  in  the  winter  time.  A  tile  drain  will  prop- 
erly take  care  of  the  water,  so  that  no  moisture  goes  under  the 
macadam. 

Any  farmer  who  has  done  tile  draining  on  his  farm  well  knows 
the  value  of  tile  drainage,  and  I  have  often  heard  it  stated  by  some : 
In  laying  tile  drains,  you  should  fill  the  drain  with  stone  or  some 


82  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

loose  material.  Water  .will  find  its  way  to  a  tile  drain  through  the 
hardest  kind  of  blue  clay  for  many  feet.  Two  drains,  3  feet  deep 
and  32  feet  apart,  in  blue  clay,  will  thoroughly  drain  that  soil  of 
surface  water. 

I  lived  alongside  the  Erie  Railway,  and  up  to  a  few  years  ago 
they  were  having  trouble  with  their  road  in  the  spring  of  the  year 
in  consequence  of  the  frost,  etc.  It  follows  along  the  side  of  the 
valley  in  a.  side  hill,  and  although  they  had  a  good  open  drain  they 
always  had  trouble  till  they  tile-drained  it.  A  few  years  ago  they 
laid  a  tile  drain  for  many  miles  along  the  upper  side  of  the  track, 
and  since  that  time  they  have  had  no  trouble  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  by  the  road  getting  out  of  shape,  thus  proving  the  value  of 
tile  drainage  over  surface  drainage  or  gutters.  A  large  number  of 
our  highways  must  be  dirt  or  gravel  for  ages  to  come,  and  a  large 
portion  can  be  made  almost  as  good  as  macadam  by  properly  tiling 
them. 

At  the  close  of  his  paper,  Mr.  Godfrey  said: 

I  might  say  a  word  in  regard  to  some  of  the  waterways  that 
New  York  has  had  to  contend  with  in  the  last  few  years.  Ten  years 
ago  there  was  nine  million  dollars  voted  to  improve  the  Erie  Canal, 
running  from  Buffalo  to  Albany  or  Troy,  entering  the  Hudson  river 
at  that  point.  There  was  very  little  improvement,  apparently,  from 
the  expenditure  of  nine  million  dollars.  About  four  years  ago, 
maybe  five,  the  people  voted  to  expend  $101,000,000  to  enlarge  the 
Erie  Canal  to  a  barge  canal,  and  that  is  being  expended ;  but  it  is 
the  greatest  fraud  ever  perpetrated  on  the  people.  Never  in  the 
history  of  this  country  will  that  canal  be  made  valuable  and  profit- 
able to  the  people.  It  is  simply  an  expense  to  the  state,  without 
any  recompense  to  the  people 'therefrom.  We  do  not  need  canals 
in  this  country.  The  many  railroads  that  are  crossing  our  country 
can  transport  our  crops  to  much  better  advantage  and  cheaper 
than  the  people  can  afford  to  maintain  a  canal  for  that  purpose. 
This  canal  across  our  state  is  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  the 
products  of  the  West  to  the  seaboard.  No  tolls  are  charged  for 
that  purpose.  ,  It  is  a  free  waterway,  and  yet  the  people  derive  no 
benefit  from  it  whatever. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  OTHER  AID  IN  ROAD  BUILDING. 

This  was  the  subject  allotted  to  Mr.  R.  M.  Brereton,  of  Oregon, 
and  in  an  exhaustive  paper  he  did  full  justice  to  his  subject.  In 
commencing  his  paper,  he  said : 

When  the  president  of  the  Good  Roads  Association  called  on  me 
a  week  or  two  ago  to  give  you  an  address  on  Good  Roads,  I  hesi- 
tated about  doing  so,  because  at  my  age — I  am  close  on  80 — I  felt 
that  younger  men  ought  to  take  up  this  line  of  boosting  good 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  83 

roads ;  but  my  heart  is  in  it.  For  58  years  I  have  been  interested  in 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roads  and  railroads  and  irri- 
gation works  in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  hemispheres  of  the 
earth,  so  that  I  can  claim  to  have  the  authority  of  real  practical 
experience,  instead  of  mere  theories,  and  what  I  want  to  say  to 
you  this  afternoon,  if  it  is  possible  for  me  to  give  you  encourage- 
ment in  the  promoting  of  Good  Roads  throughout  the  country,  I 
hope  I  shall  be  able  to  do  so. 

It  has  been  my  experience  in  my  professional  career  in  England, 
Scotland,  India,  and  North  America  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
farming  communities  to  a  large  extent.  With  the  millions  of  farm- 
ers in  India,  I  have  seen  the  burdens  put  upon  them ;  with  the 
million  or  more  farmers  in  the  United  Kingdom,  I  have  seen  how 
they  have  borne  the  burden  of  the  roads.  I  have  seen  it  on  this 
coast  in  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana,  Wy- 
oming, and  Nevada,  where  the  pioneer  farmers  have  constructed 
and  been  maintaining  the  roads  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  That 
has  been  a  great  injustice.  I  am  not  going  to  talk  about  the  con- 
struction or  maintenance  of  the  roads.  My  professional  brethren 
of  a  younger  generation  can  talk  about  that.  But  I  want  to  give 
you  an  old  man's  experience  in  regard  to  the  financing  of  roads. 
I  want  to  show  you  a  better  way  for  securing  the  money  that  is 
necessary  to  build  good  roads.  You  cannot  get  it  out  of  the  agri- 
cultural community.  That  is  an  injustice,  for  they  have  neither  the 
ability,  nor  the  time,  nor  the  skill  to  furnish  the  money  for  the 
rapid  transit  traffic  that  is  upon  the  roads  at  the  present  day.  From 
my  knowledge  of  sixty  years  I  can  tell  you  how  much  I  have  seen 
of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  all  kinds  of  human  life  and 
progress.  If  you  will  permit  me,  I  will  give  you  a  few  instances. 


A  PROPOSITION  FOR  A  NEW  WAY  OF  FINANCING  THE 
CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS. 

BY  R.  M.  BRERETON,  M.  INST.  C.  E.,  EX-CHIEF  RESIDENT  ENGINEER 
OF  THE  GREAT  INDIAN  PENINSULA  RAILWAY,  CONNECTING  BOM- 
BAY WITH  CALCUTTA  AND  MADRAS,  EX-CHIEF  CONSULTING  ENGI- 
NEER FOR  THE  IRRIGATION  (1,200  MILES)  OF  THE  ENTIRE  SAN 
JOAQUIN  VALLEY,  CALIFORNIA,  EX-SURVEYOR  OF  PUBLIC  ROADS 
AND  BRIDGES  OF  THE  COUNTY  OF  NORFOLK,  ENGLAND,  EX-COM- 
MISSIONER TO  THE  LATE  DUKE  OF  SUTHERLAND;  HAVING  THE 
SOLE  CHARGE  OF  THOSE  ESTATES  ;  SPECIAL  PLEADER  FOR  THE  ES- 
TABLISHMENT OF  GOOD  ROADS,  AND  FOR  THE  UTILIZATION  OF  THE 
NATURAL  UNDERGROUND  WATERS,  BY  MEANS  OF  THE  WELL  SYS- 
TEM OF  IRRIGATION,  IN  THE  WILLAMETTE  AND  OTHER  VALLEYS  OF 
OREGON. 

Introductory. 

My  credentials  in  writing  the  following  paper  on  the  necessity 
for  the  nationalization,  in  the  forms  of  finance  and  general  admin- 
istration of  the  Public  Roads,  are  that  I  am  nearly  four  score  years 
M.R.B.— 7 


84  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

in  physical  age,  and  have  actively  followed  the  profession  of  a  Civil 
Engineer  during  the  past  fifty-eight  years  in  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Hemispheres. 

During  my  life  I  have  seen  the  marvelous  progress  made  in 
national  and  international  commerce  and  social  intercourse  through 
civilized  human  endeavor,  skill,  and  scientific  enlightenment,  which 
evolution  the  engineers  of  a  younger  generation  have  not  witnessed. 

I  have  seen,  and  have  been  a  participant  in,  the  dawn  and  the 
zenith  of  the  railroad  arterial  system  of  internal  and  transcon- 
tinental communications,  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  North 
America. 

I  have  seen  the  dark  age  of  the  primitive  oil  and  gas  lamps  and 
tallow  dip  transformed  into  the  light  age  of  electric  illuminations 
of  city,  town,  and  home. 

I  have  seen  the  shilling  rate  of  postage  on  letters  reduced  to  the 
present  penny  and  half-penny  rate. 

I  have  seen,  and  was  employed  on  the  construction  of,  the  first 
largest  ocean  steamer,  the  Great  Eastern,  which  laid  the  first  At- 
lantic Cable  of  electrical  communication  between  Britain  and  North 
America. 

I  have  seen  ocean  communications  between  England  and  Amer- 
ica reduced  in  average  time  from  20  days  to  five  days. 

I  have  seen  the  Thames  and  the  Hudson  rivers  undermined  by 
the  construction  of  subways  for  car  line  and  passenger  service. 

I  have  seen  and  observed  the  introduction  and  construction  of 
both  the  cable  and  electric  car  lines  of  England,  Europe,  and 
America. 

I  have  seen,  and  participated  in,  the  irrigation  of  vast  areas  of 
arid  and  semi-arid  lands  in  India  and  America,  through  which  the 
food  land  has  been  greatly  extended  in  area,  and  the  population 
increased,  and  the  welfare  and  well-being  of  both  countries  en- 
hanced. 

I  have  seen  the  utilization  of  both  natural  and  artificial  waterfalls 
for  power  purposes,  the  source  of  which  is  the  annual  rainfall,  the 
everlasting  "unearned  increment"  of  the  product  of  the  sun's  evap- 
oration of  oceanic  waters,  and  of  the  aerial  currents. 

As  a  living  witness  of  the  incoming  and  outcome  of  all  these  won- 
derful transformations  and  utilizations  of  natural  resources, 
through  civilized  human  effort,  skill,  and  intelligence,  I  feel,  in  my 
old  age,  fully  assured  that  the  present  important  problem  of  Good 
Roads,  with  the  more  rational,  equitable,  and  economic  financing 
and  administration  thereof,  will  shortly  be  solved  in  a  manner  sat- 
isfactory to  the  peoples  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  of  the 
United  States. 

During  the  past  58  years  I  have  been  an  active  participator  in 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public  roads,  and  have  seen 
and  carefully  studied  -the  methods  followed  in  Great  Britain, 
Europe,  India,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 

For  six  years  I  had  the  general  supervision  of  all  the  public  high- 
ways .of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  containing  about  5,000  miles  of  pub- 
lic roads,  as  well  as  the  responsibility  of  carrying  out  the  then  new 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  85 

"main  road"  system  under  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Parliament 
of  1878. 

During  this  service  in  Norfolk,  I  also  acted  as  auditor  of  all  the 
public  road  expenditure  in  the  county  under  the  local  government 
board,  and  thereby  gained  a  close  insight  of  the  past  and  present 
system  of  administration,  and  of  its  weakness  and  injustice  in  the 
form  of  road  finance,  and  which  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  general 
system  of  the  United  States. 

When  Commissioner  to  the  late  Duke  of  Sutherland  (whose  es-* 
tates  in  Scotland  embraced  over  a  million  and  a  third  acres  and  a 
population  thereon  of  over  33,000),  I  was  chairman  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  the  public  roads  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

For  my  six  years'  services  on  the  roads  and  bridges  of  Norfolk 
I  received  a  testimonial,  signed  by  the  county  authority,  the  High 
Sheriff,  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  the  present  King  of  England,  the 
principal  landowners  and  rate  payers,  and  the  Bishop  and  clergy. 
One  of  the  principal  landowners  was  the  Earl  of  Rosebery,  ex- 
Prime  Minister  of  England. 

Norfolk  is  the  chief  agricultural  county  of  England.  It  contains 
an  area  of  about  1,291,000  acres,  a  population  of  468,000,  and  $11,- 
971,295. 

Norfolk  has  about  1,400  miles  of  main  roads,  or  about  28  per 
cent,  of  its  total  mileage  of  public  -roads  which  have  been  estab- 
lished as  "main  highways"  since  1878.  The  average  annual  cost  of 
maintenance  of  these  roads  is  $190  per  mile,  while  the  average  cost 
of  similar  class  of  roads  in  England  and  Wales  is  $360  per  mile  in 
the  rural  districts. 

Norfolk  has  about  21/£  miles  of  all  public  roads  to  the  square  mile, 
and  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile  of  main  road  to  the  square  mile. 

Norfolk  has  always  had  a  high  reputation  for  good  roads.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  King  Charles  II.  said :  "Norfolk  should  be 
cut  into  slices  as  roads  for  the  rest  of  the  kingdom." 

R.  M.  BRERETON,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

Woodstock,  Oregon. 

The  Nationalization  of  the  Public  Roads  System. 

During  the  past  one  hundred  years  the  Public  Roads  of  Great 
Britain  and  those  of  the  United  States  have  been  viewed  by  the 
people  and  their  governments  from  a  local  rather  than  a  national 
point,  so  that  there  has  never  been  enough  money  and  skill  ex- 
pended in  their  proper  construction  and  annual  maintenance. 

The  time  is  fully'  ripe  for  the  English  and  American  peoples  and 
their  governments  to  take  a  more  comprehensive  and  national 
view  of  the  extreme  importance  the  public  roads  are  to  every  form 
and  degree  of  home,  social,  industrial,  and  commercial  life.  The 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  even  the  main  roads  endured  by  the 
nation  when  the  population  was  smaller,  and  when  trade,  industry, 
commerce,  and  all  the  products  of  agriculture,  mine,  and  forest 
were  infinitesimally  small  as  compared  with  the  present  outcome, 
is  no  longer  endurable. 


86  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Railroads,  electric  car  lines,  motor  cars,  telegraphs,  telephones, 
wireless  telegraphy,  rural  mail  and  parcel  delivery,  have  all  com- 
bined to  quicken  the  pulse  of  national  movement,  and  install  im- 
patience with  delays  in  the  mind  of  the  present  highly  civilized 
public. 

The  majority  of  the  American  people  form  no  longer,  anywhere, 
slow-moving  pioneer  communities.  They  want  to  be  in  closer  and 
quicker  touch  with  their  local  and  outside  sources  of  social  life  and 
business. 

The  railroad  artery  of  communication  is  rapidly  enlarging  in 
mileage  and  usefulness.  Its  sources  of  money  for  construction  are 
not  from  any  tax  on  the  food  lands  of  the  nation,  as  are  those  of 
the  public  roads. 

The  essential  vein  system — the  public  roads — to  the  railroad  ar- 
tery does  not  respond  to  the  needed  social  and  business  circulation. 

Through  the  lack  of  this  wholesome  circulation,  society,  com- 
merce, trade,  and  industry  of  every  sort  throughout  the  country 
are  heavily  handicapped  with  unnecessary  cost  and  delay. 

The  railroad  service  especially  suffers  from  periodic  congestion, 
and  from  extra  expense  in  the  provision  of  rolling  stock,  which  re- 
mains idle  during  months  because  of  the  bad  condition  of  the  public 
roads. 

Over  the  whole  of  the  Pacific  Coast  the  railroad  system  is  being 
projected  into  the  rich  wilds  of  plain  and  valley  to  enable  more 
immigrants  to  come  in  and  settle. 

These  have  to  make,  at  their  own  expense,  such  temporary  roads 
as  they  can  spare  time  and  money  for.  The  Government  sells  the 
public  lands  to  these  settlers ;  but  not  one  cent  from  this  revenue 
goes  to  the  establishment  of  the  public  roads,  as  was  foreseen  and 
provided  for  by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution.  Furthermore,  in 
reclaiming  the  arid  and  swamp  lands  of  the  public  domain  by  irri- 
gation and  drainage  for  purposes  of  settlement,  the  Government 
gets  back  the  entire  cost  thereof  from  the  settlers,  but  provides  no 
roads,  as  does  the  Government  of  India.  The  American  farmer,  in 
addition  to  the  first  cost  of  the  land,  pays  the  cost  of  reclamation, 
plus  the  cost  of  road  construction,  and  plus  the  cost  of  annual  main- 
tenance. 

Public  Road  Construction  under  the  Constitution. 

The  fathers  and  framers  of  the  Constitution,  in  section  8  thereof, 
displayed  their  foresight  and  wisdom  in  providing  for  the  never- 
ceasing  need  of  internal  and  interstate  communications  by  Post 
Offices  and  Roads  at  the  national  expense  throughout  the  area  of 
the  United  States,  as  and  when  called  for. 

The  language  of  this  section  is  sufficiently  explicit ;   it  reads  thus  : 

"The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  provide  for  the  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States ;  to  regulate  commerce  among  the  several  States ;  to  establish 
Post  Offices  and  Post  Roads." 

The  framers  of  this  section  of  the  Constitution  well  knew  in 
their  own  day  that  public  roads  were  essential  to  the  welfare  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  87 

well-being  of  the  nation,  and  that  no  national  postal  service  could 
be  established  without  the  accompaniment  of  roads,  and  so  they 
wrote  ''shall"  instead  of  "may"  have  power  to  establish  roads.  To 
establish  means  nothing  less  than  construction ;  but  it  does  not 
include  annual  maintenance  after  construction.  That  part  of  it  is 
local,  not  national,  duty  and  policy. 

This  reading  of  the  Constitution  was  established  by  Congress 
under  the  administration  of  President  Monroe. 

If  the  National  Government  fulfills  faithfully  this  all  important 
duty  to  the  nation,  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  navigable  waters  and 
harbors,  the  local  annual  expenditure  on  the  maintenance  of  the 
roads  would  be  reduced  fully  one-half  of  the  present ;  for  the  new 
roads  on  this  coast  would  be  built  on  sound  and  skillful  principles 
to  bear  the  growing  public  traffic  upon  them. 

National  Aid  to   Railroads. 

The  incompleteness  of  the  national  policy  in  its  relation  to  local, 
state,  interstate,  and  transcontinental  communications  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  partiality  shown  by  the  National  Government  to  the 
railroad  arterial  portion  thereof. 

The  arterial  system  is  more  or  less  valueless  without  the  vein 
system.  If  the  arterial  system  needed  national  assistance  in  cost 
of  construction,  a  fortiori  does  the  vein  system  need  it.  Why  so? 
Because  the  railroad  system  has  its  pecuniary  resources  for  con- 
struction from  national  and  worldwide  capital  seeking  investment; 
whereas,  under  existing  policy  and  old-time  custom,  the  construc- 
tion of  roads  is  purely  a  local  duty,  and  a  grievous  and  most  unjust 
financial  burden  on  the  farming  communities — that  is,  upon  the 
food  of  the  nation. 

The  mileage  of  public  roads  must  necessarily  far  exceed  that  of 
the  railroad  system,  and  the  first  cost  in  construction,  as  a  rapidly 
increasing  population  creates  a  greater  mileage  of  roads,  will  ap- 
proximate to,  and  may  even  exceed,  the  cost  of  the  total  railroad 
system  throughout  the  Pacific  Coast  states. 

During  the  past  40  years  Congress  has  made  a  free  grant  of 
266,000,000  acres,  or  415,630  square  miles,  of  the  public  domain  to 
five  transcontinental  railroad  systems,  the  total  combined  length  of 
which  is  about  33,000  miles  (8,060  acres  per  mile).  This  donation 
in  area  is  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of  France  and  Germany,  which 
contains  a  population  of  about  one  hundred  millions. 

The  area  donated  to  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  contains  47,- 
000,000  acres,  or  73,438  square  miles.  This  is  equal  to  the  combin- 
ed areas  of  the  six  following  states:  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  Delaware,  which 
contain  a  population  of  sixteen  million. 

$532,000,000  would  be  a  low  valuation  of  these  land  grants  to 
the  railroads.  This  amount  would  suffice  to  construct  one  hundred 
thousand  miles  of  first-class  roads  in  the  Middle  West  and  Pacific 
Coast  states. 


88  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

When  the  fathers  of  the  Constitution  framed  its  section  8,  the 
Railroad  Age  had  not  dawned ;  so  that  it  could  not  have  been  in 
their  minds  when  they  provided  for  the  construction  of  public  roads. 

There  are  now  about  400,000,000  acres  of  the  unappropriated  and 
unreserved  public  domain  in  the  West,  and  the  future  sale  of  one- 
half  this  area  will  produce  a  revenue  of  many  millions  for  future 
road  construction,  if  Congress  would  help  the  road  system  as  it 
has  helped  the  railroad  system. 

What  is  a  service  to  all  should  be  paid  for  by  all  the  citizens,  and 
public  roads  are  an  essential  public  service. 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  National  Government  constructed 
700  miles  of  road,  known  as  the  "Cumberland  Road"  or  "National 
Road,"  which  cost  $6,824,919,  or  $9,750  per  mile.  This  practical 
experiment  in  cost  of  road  construction  shows  the  wisdom  and  fore- 
sight of  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  in  viewing  the  road  ques- 
tion from  a  national  standpoint. 

Use  of  Public  Roads  by  the  Postal  Service  Department. 

No  better  illustration  of  the  actual  national  service  of  the  public 
roads  can  be  given  to  Congress  and  to  the  general  public  than  the 
daily  use  made  of  them  by  the  Postal  Service  of  the  Government. 
In  1888  the  Postal  Department  distributed  seven  billions  of  pieces 
of  postal  matter,  or  110  pieces  per  unit  of  the  population,  through 
57,000  post  offices. 

In  1907  it  distributed  over  twelve  billions  of  pieces,  or  160  pieces 
per  unit,  through  63,000  post  offices,  scattered  throughout  the  coun- 
try. During  this  period  of  twenty  years  it  has  permanently  estab- 
lished the  Parcel  Post  and  Money  Order  System  in  .the  rural  dis- 
tricts, both  of  which  are  of  an  interstate  and  international  char- 
acter, and  add  largely  to  the  immense  tonnage  of  mail  matter  which 
must  be  moved  over  the  public  roads,  and  cause  additional  wear 
and  tear  to  the  surface  thereof. 

This  National  Department  pays  for  its  use  of  the  railroad  system ; 
but  it  does  not  give  a  single  cent  for  its  daily  use  of  the  roads, 
bridges,  and  streets.  Furthermore,  it  notifies  its  officers  and  the 
public  as  follows :  "The  establishment  and  maintenance  of  public 
roads  is  a  matter  wholly  within  the  jurisdiction  of  state  and  local 
authorities,  and  a  matter  over  which  the  P.  O.  D.  has  no  control." 
From  this  it  is  apparent  that  the  provision  made  in  the  Constitution 
for  the  establishment  of  Post  Roads  at  the  national  expense  is  ig- 
nored or  forgotten  by  the  National  Government,  by  the  states,  and 
by  the  general  public. 

The  paramount  agricultural  interests,  which  furnish  all  the  food 
and  the  great  bulk  of  raw  materials  for  the  nation,  are  silent  in 
the  matter,  and  bear  this  unjust  burden  as  best  they  can ;  so  that 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  public  roads  throughout  the  sparsely  settled 
Middle  West  and  Pacific  Coast  states  are  badly -constructed  and 
poorly  maintained. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  89 


Railroad  Traffic  on  the  Public  Roads. 

The  immensity  of  this  traffic  and  tonnage  over  the  public  roads, 
and  its  interstate  and  international  nature,  is  far  too  little  recog- 
nized in  the  present  demand  for  good  roads  at  the  expense  of  the 
agricultural  communities. 

Poor's  Manual  of  Railroad  Statistics  furnishes  a  comprehensive 
idea  of  the  immensity  of  the  live  and  dead  weight  of  humanity,  and 
of  its  food  and  raw  materials  and  supplies,  and  of  its  products  of 
industry,  which  are  conveyed  and  moved  locally  throughout  the 
country  yearly  by  the  220,000  miles  of  railroad  which  form  the 
main  arterial  system  of  communication. 

In  1907  the  number  of  passengers  carried  was  over  one  billion. 
Averaging  these  at  100  pounds  per  unit  (including  personal  bag- 
gage) the  aggregate  live  weight  amounts  to  over  fifty  millions  of 
tons.  The  dead  freight  weight  moved  amounted  to  about  one  and 
one-half  billion  tons. 

Thus  in  one  year  this  great  arterial  system  distributed  about  two 
billions  of  tons  of  live  and  dead  weight.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume 
that  the  greater  portion  of  this  immense  national  traffic  must  have 
used  the  public  roads,  bridges,  and  streets  throughout  the  rural  and 
suburban  districts  of  the  United  States,  and  caused  most  of  the 
annual  cost  of  their  maintenance. 

The  present  Pacific  Railroad  Group  serves  a  series  of  states 
wherein  population  is  comparatively  sparse  and  scattered,  and  a 
vast  area  of  land  very  little  developed,  but  producing  an  immense 
tonnage  of  grain,  hay,  fruits,  minerals,  lumber,  cattle,  sheep,  dairy 
and  poultry  supplies,  and  manufactures. 

In  this  Group  there  are  about  13,500  miles.  In  1907  the  number 
of  passengers  carried  was  forty  millions ;  weight  thereof  two  mil- 
lion tons.  The  freight  moved  was  about  twenty-eight  million  tons, 
making  a  total  of  thirty  million  tons. 

Urgent  Need  for  Road  Improvement. 

The  foregoing  statements,  showing  the  present  and  the  increasing 
use  of  the  public  roads,  and  the  immensity  of  the  moving  tonnage 
thereon,  show  very  clearly  that  these  must  be  more  strongly  and 
skillfully  constructed  and  maintained  to  enable  them  to  meet  the 
public  demand  throughout  the  year.  As  railroads  are  viewed  as 
Permanent  Ways,  so  must  the  public  roads  be.  Both  involve  a 
large  expenditure  of  money  per  mile  in  first  cost  of  construction  in 
order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  annual  maintenance. 

The  policy  of  the  railroad  system  in  regard  to  the  Permanent 
Way  construction  must  be  adopted  for  the  public  road  system. 
Heavier  steel  rails  and  better  drainage  ballast  is  the  policy  of  the 
railroad  system.  Well-drained  foundations,  good,  tough,  and  dust- 
less  surface,  is  the  policy  for  the  public  roads. 

As  the  civil  engineer  has  achieved  this  policy  in  railroad  Perma- 


90  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

nent  Way,  he  can  be  relied  upon  to  achieve  the  ne.eded  policy  for 
the  public  roads;  for  nature  has  provided  the  necessary  materials, 
and  only  money  and  skill  is  needed  to  use  them  properly. 

Cost  of  Present  Haulage  on  Public  Roads. 

The  public  and  the  farming  communities  are  still  woefully  igno- 
rant about  the  enormous  annual  cost  of  haulage  on  bad  roads.  Ow- 
ing to  the  general  bad  condition  of  the  roads  in  the  West,  during 
one-half,  at  least,  of  the  year,  the  average  cost  of  haulage  by  animal 
power  is  about  25  cents  per  ton  per  mile.  For  the  same  cost  rail- 
roads haul  freight  50  miles ;  steamers  on  the  Great  Lakes,  200 
miles ;  electric  car  lines,  5  miles. 

Congress  in  March,  1893,  appointed  General  Roy  Stone  to  gather 
data,  and  to  report  thereon,  of  the  cost  of  building  roads  and  the 
cost  of  hauling  freight  over  them. 

General  Stone's  report  to  Congress  shows  the  average  cost  of 
haulage  per  ton  per  mile  as  follows : 

In  the  Eastern  States 32  cents. 

Northern  States 27 

"  Middle  Southern  States 31 

"  Southern  (Cotton)  States 25 

"  Prairie  States 22 

Pacific  Coast  States 22 

The  average  of  these  is  26.6  cents ;   average  distance,  8  miles. 

The  Ohio  Road  Commission  also  reported  in  1893  that  the  av- 
erage cost  of  animal  haulage  on  the  roads  was  25  cents  per  ton  per 
mile.  General  Stone's  estimate  was  based  on  the  total  tonnage 
moved  by  animal  power  on  the  roads  of  the, United  States  in  1892, 
which  amounted  to  500,000,000  tons  over  an  average  distance  of  8 
miles.  This  estimate  shows  that  the  cost  of  haulage  on  the  roads 
for  one  year  amounted  to  $1,000,000,000. 

If  the  roads  had  been  constructed  and  maintained  on  scientific 
principles,  as  the  railroads  are,  the  cost  of  haulage  would  not 
average  over  12.5  cents  per  ton  per  mile,  and  would  save  the  own- 
ers of  animal  power  $500,000,000  a  year.  In  France  the  average 
cost  of  animal  haulage  on  good  roads  is  about  10  cents  per  ton  per 
mile. 

This  annual  excessive  loss  in  wear  and  tear  of  wagons  and  har- 
ness, in  damage  to  horses  from  overstrain,  in  time  through  slow 
travel  of  freight  over  bad  roads  during  many  months  of  the  year,  is 
clearly  disclosed  in  the  following  letter  from  Mr.  Stuyvesant  Fish, 
President  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  to  Governor  Lowry,  of 
Mississippi.  In  this  he  refers  to  General  Stone's  report  to  Congress 
in  1896. • 

"Circular  19,  Office  of  Road  Inquiries,  bears  date  April  4,  1896,  and  the  an- 
nual cost  of  hauling  farm  products  and  lumber  on  public  roads  in  the  United 
States,  therein  given  as  $1)46,414,665,  is  based  on  data  for  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1895. 

"In  that  year  the  gross  sum  received  by  all  the  railroads  in  the  United 
States,  for  not  only  hauling  all  freights,  but  for  also  providing  in  addition  the 
railroads,  the  cars,  the  engines,  and  the  trainmen,  and  paying  taxes  thereon, 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  91 

was  only  $729  993,462  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  cost  the  farmers  and  the  lumbermen  of 
the  United  States  alone  $216,421,203,  or  30  per  cent,  more,  in  one  year  to  haul 
their  products  on  public  roads  than  all  the  railroads  received  for  freights  of 
all  kinds.  Moreover,  70  per  cent,  of  the  gross  receipts  of  the  railroads  are 
spent  in  taxes,  labor,  and  materials,  while  bad  roads  return  nothing." 

Cost  of  Good  Roads. 

The  general  public,  who  are  now  clamoring  for  good  roads,  have 
little  conception  of  the  cost  per  mile  of  proper  road  construction. 
The  following  data  affords  a  fair  illustration  of  this  cost  in  the  fol- 
lowing countries  : 

Great  Britain  .........................  $4,000  to  $6,000,  width  20  to  30  feet. 

France    ..............................  $G,000  to  $7,500,  width  25  to  50  feet. 

Italy    ................................  $3,000  to  $4,000,  width  18  to  25  feet. 

New   England   States  ..................  $7,000  to  $9,000,  width  30  to  60  feet. 

United  States  ..................  average,  $5,415,  IS1/^  feet  metalled  macadam. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  contain  228,438  miles  of  public  roads. 
The  present  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  these  amounts  to  $79,- 
453,240,  or  $348  (nearly)  per  mile.  The  average  cost  of  the  prin- 
cipal main  roads,  on  which  there  is  heavy  traffic,  is  about  $1,650  per 
mile.  These  form  about  37,000  miles,  or  16  per  cent,  of  the  total 
mileage  of  all  roads,  the  total  of  which  shows  about  2y2  miles  to  the 
square  mile  of  country. 

In  the  United  States  in  1904  there  were  2,151,570  miles"  of  public 
roads.  The  total  expenditure  on  these  for  that  year  (1904) 
amounted  to  $79,771,418,  or  $37  only  per  mile. 

Of  this  gross  mileage,  155,662  miles,  or  7*4  Per  cent,  only,  were 
improved  surface  roads. 

The  average  cost  of  construction  of  good  roads  during  recent 
years  has  been  as  follows  : 

Pacific  Coast  States  ..............  $7,707  per  mile,  or  84  cents  per  square  yard. 

Middle  West  States  ........  .  ......  $5,123  per  mile,  or  66  cents  per  square  yard. 

Northern  States  ..................  $5,750  per  mile,  or  75  cents  per  square  yard. 

Southern  States  ..................  $3,082  per  mile,  or  42  cents  per  square  yard. 

This  shows  an  average  first  cost  of  $5,415  per  mile  of  road,  and 
about  67  cents  per  square  yard  of  hard  surface,  averaging  in  width 
13y2  feet. 

Ratio  of  Roads  to  Area  of  Country  and  Population. 

There  are  37,000  miles  of  main  roads,  or  about  16  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  mileage,  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  represents 
about  0.42  miles  of  main  road  to  the  square  mile  of  settled  and  cul- 
tivated land,  and  about  one  mile  to  every  1,100  inhabitants.  The 
United  States  of  America  has  an  area  of  2,970,038  square  miles, 
exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Islands.  Its  2,151,570  miles  of  all  roads 
represents  about  0.78  miles  of  road  to  each  square  mile,  and  .027 
miles  to  each  unit  of  population. 

The  annual  expenditure  on  all  roads  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
approximated  with  that  of  the  United  States,  being  nearly  $80,000,- 


92  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

000.  Taking  the  population  of  the  former  at  42,000,000  and  of  the 
latter  at  80,000,000,  this  annual  cost  represents  $1.90  per  unit  of 
the  population  for  the  former  and  $1  for  the  latter. 

The  total  annual  maintenance  of  the  37,000  miles  of  main  roads 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  is  about  $6,305,240,  or  about  8  per 
cent,  of  the  total  annual  expenditure  on  all  roads. 

New  York  state,  containing  an  area  of  49,000  square  miles,  has 
provided  a  bond  issue  for  its  public  roads  amounting  to  $50,000,000. 
Massachusetts,  with  an  area  of  about  8,000  square  miles,  has  about 
2,200  miles  of  main  road,  which  have  cost  the  state  nearly  $20,000,- 
000.  Pennsylvania,  containing  45,000  square  miles,  has  appropri- 
ated $6,000,000  for  the  construction  and  improvement  of  public 
roads. 

Indiana,  containing  36,000  square  miles,  has  established  the  lar- 
gest mileage  of  hard  surface  roads  of  any  state  in  the  Union — about 
25,000  miles.  Thirty-five  per  cent,  of  the  main  roads  have  been  con- 
structed and  improved,  from  time  to  time,  through  the  issue  of 
bonds  at  the  rate  of  $2,000,000  per  year. 

Michigan,  containing  an  area  of  59,000  square  miles,  pays  a  bonus 
of  $1,000  per  mile  for  the  construction  of  macadamized  road. 

Connecticut,  containing  an  area  of  5,000  square  miles,  pays  two- 
thirds  of  the  cost  of  good  roads,  which  varies  from  $7,000  to  $9,000 
per  mile. 

Mileage  Ratio  of  Roads  to  Railroads. 

As  the  total  annual  expenditure  on  public  roads  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  is  nearly  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  United  States,  so  also 
is  the  mileage  ratio  of  all  public  roads  to  railroad  mileage  the  same. 

Railroad  Miles.     Road  Miles.     Ratio. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 23,108  228,438        9.88 

United  States  of  America 227..671  .  2,151,570        9.45 

The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  English  railroads  is  about  $6,- 
500,000,000,  or  $280,000  per  mile ;  that  of  the  United  States  is  about 
$16,500,000,000,  or  $72,500  per  mile.  This  amount  would  suffice  to 
construct  12  miles  of  good  road,  at  the  .rate  of  $6,000  per  mile,  to 
every  mile  of  railroad  in  the  country.  That  is  probably  what  the 
mileage  ratio  of  roads  to  railroads  will  be  when  this  Pacific  Coast 
becomes  as  populous  as  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

Injustice  of  Present  Financial  Road  System. 

The  long  past  and  still  existing  system  of  financing  the  cost  of 
public  road  construction  is  of  a  barbarian  and  feudal  origin,  inequi- 
table, inadequate,  and  unbearable  in  this  twentieth  century.  The 
present  road  tax  on  realty  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  country,  and 
the  public  duty  in  road  construction  and  efficient  annual  mainte- 
nance, fall  as  a  grievous  burden  upon  the  shoulders  of  only  one  of 
the  industrial  classes  of  the  nation,  and  that  one  which  alone  sup- 
plies the  food  of  all. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


93 


It  is  fast  becoming  a  very  serious  matter  to  the  farming  com- 
munities of  the  largest  states  in  the  Union — Texas,  California,  Ore- 
gon, and  Washington — who  are  now  being  called  to  satisfy  the  rap- 
idly growing  demand  for  good  roads,  which  shall  be  kept  good  and 
serviceable  for  motor  cars  throughout  the  year. 

As  the  railroad  system  came  to  stay,  so  will  the  motor  car  system 
stay  with  us;  and  so  will  the  National  Postal  Service  continue  to 
expand  and  use  the  roads.  This  national  and  internationl  use  of 
the  public  roads  is  pregnant  with  forcible  argument  for  the  na- 
tionalization of  the  public  roads. 

In  1901,  511,808  miles  of  the  public  roads  were  used  by  the 
Postal  Department.  As  the  railroad  system  has  been  extended  in 
the  West  during  the  past  decade,  it  has  reduced  somewhat  the 
length  of  the  Postal  Routes.  The  average  mileage  used  annually 
during  the  decade  ending  1908  is  481,000  miles.  This  is  nearly  one- 
fourth  of  all  the  road  mileage  of  the  country. 

During  the  same  decade  the  National  Government  has  paid  the 
railroad  corporations  and  stage  owners  for  the  transportation  of  the 
mail  $674,363,597,  or  an  average  of  $67,436,360  a  year.  Not  one 
cent  of  this  expenditure  helped  to  construct  or  maintain  the  roads 
used  by  the  stages  and  carriers  of  the  mails. 

Motor  Car  Traffic  on  Roads. 

Nothing  has  ever  before  shown  so  much  to  the  general  public  the 
importance  of  good  roads  throughout  the  country  as  has  the  advent 
of  motor  vehicles  of  all  kinds.  In  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United 
States  this  advent  has  created  a  widespread  demand  for  well-sur- 
faced and  strongly  built  roads ;  for  the  use  of  these  vehicles  has 
increased  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  surface,  as  well  as  the  terrible 
dust  nuisance. 

The  following  table  shows  the  increase  in  number  of  these  ve- 
hicles on  some  of  the  main  roads  in  England,  between  1904  and 
1907,  and  the  increase  in  cost  of  maintenance  due  to  them : 


Year. 

No.  of 
Motors. 

Miles  of 
Roads. 

Total  Cost. 

Rate  per  Mile. 

1904     

51,549 

27223 

$11,830,815 

$435 

1905    

74058 

27,367 

12,033,770 

440 

1906    

86,536 

27,580 

12  392  405 

455 

1907    

125.320 

27,556 

12  645,685 

460 

Previous  to  the  use  of  the  roads  by  motor  vehicles,  the  average 
rate  cost  per  mile  was  $380 ;  in  the  year  1907  this  rate  had  been  in- 
creased $80,  or  about  21  per  cent. 

It  is  estimated  that  to  improve  4,500  miles  of  main  road  in 
England,  which  are  now  maintained  with  flints,  gravel,  and  lime- 
stone, with  basalt  and  granite  materials  and  tar,  will  cost  about 
$5,500  per  mile,  or  a  total  expenditure  of  $25,000,000. 

In  the  United  States  the  number  of  motor  cycles  in  use  is  about 
50,000.  The  number  of  automobiles  is  about  200,000.  It  is  esti- 


94  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

mated  that  over  50,000  of  these  latter  vehicles  are  being  manufac- 
tured yearly  in  the  United  States.  Those  produced  in  1908  amount- 
ed in  value  to  $122,000,000. 

Besides  the  above  numbers  of  motor  vehicles  in  use  on  the  roads, 
about  5,000  steam  and  electric  vehicles  are  being  yearly  produced. 

This  vast  increase  of  rapid-moving  and  heavy  traffic  on  the  roads 
calls  for  national  aid  in  the  construction  of  the  roads,  as  provided 
for  in  the  Constitution,  and  state  aid  in  the  yearly  maintenance  of 
them. 

It  is  simply  idle  and  absurd  to  call  upon  the  farming  communi- 
ties to  meet  this  new  and  ever-increasing  demand  for  better  roads. 
They  have  neither  the  financial  ability  nor  the  time  and  skill  re- 
quired to  do  it. 

The  food  lands  of  the  nation  should  not  be  wholly  taxed,  as  they 
now  are,  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  most  impor- 
tant vein  system  of  internal  communications. 

After  a  century  and  more  of  national  lethargy  and  gross  injustice 
to  the  agricultural  community,  public  opinion  in  Great  Britain  has 
sought  a  new  way  with  this  public  road  question ;  so  that  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  in  his  recent  Budget  has  been  enabled  to 
make  a  new  and  most  important  advance  towards  the  improvement 
and  maintenance  of  all  main  roads  in  the  kingdom.  His  proposi- 
tion is  to  tax  all  motor  vehicles  and  the  petrol  used  in  them.  This 
tax  is  estimated  to  yield  in  1909-10  the  sum  of  $3,750,000  from  the 
United  Kingdom  and  Ireland.  It  forms  the  first  national  financial 
aid  to  the  public  road  system. 

The  railway  passenger  duty,  amounting  to  about  $1,750,000  a 
year,  should  also  be  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  main  roads, 
because  this  traffic  is  more  or  less  contributory  to  the  wear  and  tear 
of  the  roads. 

This  new  national  road  policy  in  England  could  be  easily  adopted 
in  the  United  States,  if  the  mind  of  the  general  public  were  awakened 
to  its  urgent  necessity,  and  if  the  agricultural  and  motor  car  inter- 
ests would  combine  to  move  Congress  out  of  its  too  long  endured 
inertia  in  the  matter  of  public  roads. 

The  existence  of  200,000  motor  vehicles  on  the  roads  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  calling  for  an  additional  expenditure  of  several  thousand 
dollars  per  mile  in  the  use  of  better  surface  materials,  and  requiring 
more  skill  and  experience  in  construction  than  the  present  system 
and  its  authorities  can  furnish,  form  a  very  strong  appeal  for  help 
to  the  National  Government. 

The  capital  already  invested  in  motor  vehicles  is  now  so  large — 
probably  $250,000,000 — that  the  roads  should  be  made  serviceable 
for  them,  and  reduce  the  cost  of  their  repairs. 

The  first  transcontinental  railroad  corporations,  with  less  capital 
invested  at  the  start,  were  able  to  obtain  a  large  amount  of  financial 
help  from  Congress,  in  the  form  of  land  grants  and  in  guaranteed 
interest  on  their  first  bonds,  for  the  construction  of  the  arterial  sys- 
tem of  state  and  interstate  communication. 

The  promoters  of  good  roads  throughout  the  country  should  not 
be  discouraged  in  their  efforts  to  move  the  National  Government 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  95 

into  the  new  way  of  viewing  the  public  roads  as  the  vein  system  of 
internal  communication,  and  in  forwarding  it  under  the  existing 
power  of  the  Constitution. 

National  Ways  and  Means. 

No  civilized  country  on  earth  is  better  able  to  afford  the  cost  of 
good  roads,  and  to  need  them  more,  than  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  produces  63  per  cent,  of  the  world's  production  of 
petroleum.  Gasoline  is  one  of  the  refined  products.  Without  the 
use  of  it,  the  present  motor  car  system  would  not  be  what  it  is 
to-day.  Petroleum  in  every  form  is  now  in  use  by  all  classes. 

Statistics  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  show  that  over 
135,000,000  gallons  of  crude  oil  and  over  26,000,000  gallons  of  re- 
fined^oils  were  exported,  amounting  in  value  to  about  $104,000,000. 

Why  not  put  a  duty  on  these  exports,  and  therefrom  secure  a 
yearly  revenue  for  road  improvement? 

A  royalty  on  the  artificial  use  of  the  "unearned  increment"  of 
natural  waterfalls,  and  a  reasonable  tax  on  all  artificial  water  power 
used  for  industrial  purposes,  would  be  a  fair  proposition  for  the 
relief  of  the  existing  heavy  road  burden  on  the  cultivators  of  the 
food  lands  of  the  nation ;  for  it  should  be  well  borne  in  mind  that 
a  very  large  percentage  of  the  'raw  products  used  in  the  manu- 
factories throughout  the  country  come  from  the  farming  industry 
of  the  nation. 

Furthermore,  the  water  used  for  power  purposes  is  the  "un- 
earned increment"  of  the  natural  rainfall. 

A  reasonable  duty  on  all  lumber  exported  is  also  a  fair  proposi- 
tion for  the  benefit  of  the  roads,  because  the  natural  forest  also 
forms  one  of  the  national  "unearned  increments." 

Raw  products  from  field,  forest,  and  mine  are  transported  over 
the  roads,  and  create  their  percentage  of  the  annual  wear  and  tear 
thereof,  and  so  should  contribute  to  the  cost  of  maintenance.  All 
of  these  raw  products  pay  freight  rates  to  the  railroad  arterial  sys- 
tem of  transportation ;  therefore  these  should  also  contribute  to 
the  public  road  vein  system. 

Economy  in  Road  Width. 

The  citizens  of  the  Pacific  Coast  have  been  too  prodigal  with 
their  right  of  way  for  public  roads.  The  present  average  is  a  width 
of  60  feet,  which  represents  an  area  of  7.27  acres  per  mile  of  road. 
In  Great  Britain  and  Europe  one-half  of  this  width,  or  3.64  acres 
per  mile,  is  considered  ample  for  thickly  populated  rural  districts. 

The  Pacific  Coast  states  are  sure  to  become  densely  populated. 
Land  that  can,  in  the  future,  be  utilized  for  the  production  of  food 
should  not  be  wasted.  Lands  cannot  increase  in  area ;  but  popula- 
tion will  continue  to  increase. 

California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  form  the  "Ultima  Thule"  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  United  States.  There  can  be  no  Far- 
ther West  than  their  ocean  boundary  for  immigrants  to  settle  on. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  his  last  report  gives  the  average 


96  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

width  of  right  of  way  obtained  for  all  roads  as  40  feet,  or  4.85  acres 
per  mile  of  road.  The  aggregate  acreage  valuation  of  the  entire 
road  mileage  of  the  country  is  about  350,000,000.  This  shows  a 
value  of  $163  per  mile  of  road,  or  $33.60  per  acre  of  right  of  way. 

A  reduction  of  20  feet,  or  one-third,  in  width  of  roadway  on  this 
coast,  at  the  above  valuation,  would,  in  the  future  demand  for  cul- 
tivated land,  effect  a  saving  to  the  farming  community  of  2.42  acres, 
of  the  value  of  $81.27,  on  each  mile  of  road.  Massachusetts  has  4 
miles  of  main  road  to  the  square  mile.  If  in  the  future,  under  the 
extension  of  the  irrigation  system,  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington become  as  populous  as  Massachusetts,  they  will  each  re- 
quire an  approximate  mileage  of  roads.  Deducting  the  area  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Mountains,  it  is  probable  that  Cali- 
fornia will  require  30,000  miles  of  road,  Oregon,  20,000,  Washing- 
ton, 15,000 — making  a  total  for  this  coast  of  65,000  miles. 

By  making  the  right  of  way  to  average  40  feet  in  width,  instead 
of  60  feet,  there  would  be  a  saving  in  land  of  about  157,000  acres, 
amounting  in  value  to  about  $5,275,200.  The  value  of  this  "un- 
earned increment"  would  suffice  to  construct  over  1,000  miles  of 
road. 

Wealth  of  the  Nation. 

The  true  wealth  of  the  country  is  in  the  industry  of  the  people. 
The  inherent  wealth,  in  the  natural  resources,  or  unearned  incre- 
ments, of  soil,  forest,  and  mine,  is  worthless  without  the  toil  and 
skill  of  humanity. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  his  last  report  to  Congress  esti- 
mates the  .total  value  of  all  farm  products  from  the  soil  at  about 
$7,750,000,000.  Ten  per  cent,  of  this  was  exported  to  feed  the  peo- 
ple of  foreign  countries  and  to  furnish  raw  materials  for  their  man- 
ufacturing industries. 

In  1907  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  field  exported  amounted 
to  $1,000,000,000.  The  estimated  weight  of  the  farm  and  forest 
products  moved  over  the  public  roads  is  25,000,000  tons  a  year. 

At  25  cents  per  ton  per  mile,  the  haulage  of  this  tonnage  over 
the  roads  cost  the  farmers  and  lumbermen  $6,250,000  a  year.  The 
estimated  present  number  of  farms  in  the  United  States  is  6,100,000, 
and  their  value  $28,000,000,000. 

The  adult  population  of  this  national  industry  is  about  10,500,000, 
or  about  13  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population. 

The  estimated  annual  cost  of  all  roads  is  about  $80,000,000.  This 
cost  now  falls  mainly  upon  the  agricultural  industry. 

The  entire  wealth  of  the  United  States  is  estimated  to  be  $116,- 
000,000,000 ;  the  value  of  the  annual  agricultural  products  is  about 
6%  per  cent,  of  the  national  wealth ;  the  annual  cost  of  the  roads 
is  about  three-fourths  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  national  wealth. 

With  the  evidence  that  these  national  statistics  afford,  the  agri- 
cultural community  may  well  ask  why  it  should  alone  continue  to 
bear  the  financial  burden  and  duty  of  this  national  service,  the  an- 
nual cost  of  which  amounts  to  1  per  cent,  of  the  total  annual  value 
of  the  products  of  its  industry. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  97 

History  shows  that  for  thousands  of  years  the  farming  communi- 
ties of  the  world  have  been  the  most  imposed  upon  with  these  na- 
tional services.  The  Hebrew  farmer  Issachar  was  described  by  his 
father,  Jacob,  "as  a  strong  ass,  crouching  down  between  two  bur- 
dens, who  saw  that  [farm]  rest  was  good,  and  the  land  was  pleas- 
ant, and  he  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear,  and  became  a  servant  under 
tribute." 

The  world  has  seen  how  well  this  patriarchic  prediction  has  been 
fulfilled.  Priestcraft  enacted  the  tithe  system,  levied  on  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  food  industry;  kingcraft  levied  ruthlessly  upon  the 
shoulder  labor  and  products  of  the  farmer. 

The  Pyramids  of  Egypt  stand  forth  as  a  lasting  memorial  of  the 
enforced  labor  of  the  Fellahin  farming  community;  the  Great  Wall 
of  China — 1,500  miles  in  length — was  built  by  the  forced  labor  of 
the  tillers  of  the  soil ;  the  numerous  splendid  Hindoo  and  Mo- 
hammedan temples  and  temple  caves  of  India  are  the  outcome  of 
the  forced  labor  of  the  Hindoo  ryot  farmer ;  the  grand  roads  of  the 
Roman  Empire  were  the  outcome  of  the  forced  rural  labor;  the 
public  roads  of  Great  Britain  have  been  constructed  and  annually 
maintained  by  the  owners  and  tenants  of  ,the  food  lands  of  the  na- 
tion under  the  unwritten  law  of  "prescription,"  dating  back  to  the 
time  of  King  Richard  I — a  period  of  800  years — and  supplemented 
by  Royal  Acts  of  Henry  VIII  and  of  William  IV ;  the  public  roads 
of  the  United  States  are  the  products  of  the  agricultural  labor  and 
money  through  old  established  custom,  and  neglect  of  the  road  pro- 
vision in  the  Constitution. 

Time  for  a  New  Way. 

The  great  railroad  arterial  system  of  internal  communication, 
with  its  invested  capital  of  nearly  $11,000,000,000,  the  motor  car  en- 
terprise and  industry,  with  its  invested  capital  of  $250,000,000,  and 
the  agricultural  industry,  with  its  invested  capital  of  $28,000,000,- 
000,  representing  an  invested  present  total  capital  of  $39,250,000,- 
000,  or  33y2  per  cent,  of  the  total  wealth  of  the  nation,  should  now 
combine  to  secure  from  the  National  and  State  Governments  an 
entirely  new  system  of  financing,  constructing,  and  maintaining  the 
public  roads  of  the  nation. 

This  paper  has  only  touched  upon  a  matter  of  the  very  highest 
importance  to  the  nation,  one  which  ought  to  occupy  the  careful 
attention  of  all  thoughtful  citizens,  because  on  the  equity  of  the 
mode  of  raising  money  for  this  national  service  the  service  itself 
depends,  and  because  the  economic  use  of  the  money  raised  de- 
mands skill  and  experience  which  the  existing  road  administration 
cannot  possibly  exercise. 

It  is  the  work  of  the  statesmen  in  Congress  and  in  the  state  Leg- 
islatures to  carry  out  this  new  national  policy  in  regard  to  roads  to 
a  satisfactory  and  noble  end. 

[Signed]     R.  M.  BRSRDTON,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

Woodstock,  Oregon,  July  1,  1909. 


98  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDINtt 


SOME  FEATURES  OF  MACADAM  CONSTRUCTION/ 

"Some  Features  of  Macadam  Construction"  was  the  subject  of 
the  address  of  Mr.  A.  N.  Johnson,  of  Illinois.  He  said: 

I  hope  to  go  into  details  of  what  I  may  eventually  prepare  as  a 
paper  for  this  Congress.  There  are  two  or  three  points  in  connec- 
tion with  macadam  construction  _that  I  will  touch  upon,  assuming 
that  most  of  you  are  road  builders  or  immediately  connected  with 
the  work.  We  have  already  had  touched  upon  the  preparation  of 
our  road  as  to  matters  of  drainage ;  but  if  you  are  a  road  builder, 
and  were  perhaps  following  out  the  advice  given,  which  was  good, 
you  might  think  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  underdrain  every 
mile  of  road  you  would  undertake.  I  have  known  many  miles  of 
road  underdrained  and  money  wasted  because  it  was  not  needed. 
It  is  as  good  engineering  to  let  go  what  is  unnecessary  as  to  put 
in  something  as  a  sort  of  hazard  or  guess.  Only  in  accordance  with 
judgment  based  on  experience  can  we  do  those  things,  and  what 
would  at  first  appear  like  taking  a  chance  is  taking  advantage  of 
what  experience  we  have  had  to  let  go  useless  work.  It  is  a  simple 
matter  in  one  way,  with  enough  money  to  go  ahead  and  make  al- 
most anything  that  will  stand.  The  point  is :  Should  we  put  more 
money  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  make  it  stand?  The  differ- 
ence between  that  construction  in  the  one  case,  putting  in  an  im- 
mense amount  of  material  and  putting  in  only  what  is  necessary  to 
get  a  good  thing,  is  the  difference  between  engineering  as  I  regard 
it  and  mere  constructive  talent. 

The  question  of  underdraining  a  piece  of  road  depends  upon  the 
conditions,  and,  knowing  these,  it  is  not  a  very  difficult  matter  to 
decide  whether  underdrainage  is  necessary  or  not;  and  I  would  ad- 
vise, assuming  I  could  have  charge  of  a  certain  system  of  roads  for 
a  long  enough  period,  I  would  advise  leaving  out  the  underdrainage 
where  I  was  in  doubt,  rather  than  put  in  useless  underdrainage. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  most  of  the  work  that  I  have  had  to  do  as 
city  engineer  and  as  engaged  in  government  work,  in  most  of  the 
work  that  Mr.  Campbell  has  had  to  do  in  Ontario,  and  other  city 
engineers  have  had  to  do,  the  trouble  has  been  that  we  were  not  in 
a  position  to  make  any  such  experiment.  We  have  to  make  a  piece 
of  road  that  will  stand  anyway,  simply  because  we  are  making  a 
piece  of  road.  It  is  an  object  lesson.  Because  we  have  to  construct 
that  object  lesson  road,  we  are  sometimes  driven  to  put  in  a  form 
of  construction  that  in  our  own  judgment  we  are  almost  sure  is 
unnecessary,  and  would  be  probably  unnecessary,  if  we  could  have 
a  system  of  roads  directly  under  our  charge  for  a  certain  number 
of  years,  so  that  oftentimes  the  work  done  by  city  engineers  is  nec- 
essarily expensive,  possibly  more  expensive  than  it  would  be,  for 
instance,  if  you  were  engineer  in  a  county,  and  had  a  defined  unit. 
to  work  in,  and  to  work  out  your  own  salvation  for  a  given  number 
of  years;  and  I  would  not  be  so  much  concerned  under  those  con- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  99 

ditions  with  the  first  construction,  whether  I  used  the  best  construc- 
tion or  not,  provided  I  had  long  enough  to  maintain  and  keep  them 
tip.  vVe  select  a  material,  add  a  little,  perhaps,  and  eventually  we 
get  the  roads.  We  put  in  only  the  material  that  the  demand  re- 
quires, and  eventually  we  get  a  system  of  roads  absolutely  the 
cheapest,  so  that  it  is  pretty  hard  to  lay  down  definite  rules  or  spec- 
ifications that  can  be  followed,  even  in  what  might  look  like  similar 
physical  conditions. 

I  find,  in  the  matter  of  underdrainage,  a  pretty  safe  guide  in  most 
cases,  if  you  want  to  be  sure  that  underground  water  is  present, 
if  the  ground  shows  trembling  or  shaking,  especially  a  few  feet 
beyond  where  the  wagon  or  the  horse  may  be,  that  there  is  under- 
ground water,  and  you  would  have  to  use  an  underground  drain 
to  get  rid  of  it.  In  level  roads,  the  fact  that  the  road  is  muddy  for 
a  long  time,  and  the  water  stands  in  pools  and  alongside  the  road, 
is  not  necessarily  evidence  that  the  underdrainage  is  defective.  It 
simply  means  in  most  cases  that  we  have  a  retentive  soil,  with  im- 
perfect surface  drainage ;  that  if  the  surface  drainage  were  prop- 
erly divided,  flowing  to  one  side  and  longitudinally  along  the  road, 
there  would  be  no  mud. 

So  you  see  it  is  hard  to  say  that  drainage  indifferently  applied 
is  necessarily  a  good  thing.  We  can  have  too  much  of  it;  that  is, 
if  we  have  to  pay  for  it.  The  point  is,  and  which  was  intended  to 
be  conveyed  in  every  instance  where  it  was  mentioned  by  the 
speakers  here  that  I  have  heard,  the  point  is  that  a  road  to  be  per- 
fect, has  got  to  have  drainage,  that  may  be  partially  provided  by 
the  natural  condition  of  the  soil,  where  there  is  no  need  of  under- 
drainage because  there  is  no  water  to  be  taken  away,  and  when  we 
have  a  road  in  that  condition  we  will  have  a  foundation  provided 
that  will  hold  up  the  surface. 

In  explaining  round  our  Farmers'  Institutes  as  to  the  principles 
of  making  a  road,  I  have  said  there  was  one  main  principle,  which 
was  .that  we  shall  have  a  water-tight  roof  to  the  road.  If  you  would 
take  one  of  our  muddy  roads  and  lay  on  it  a  piece  of  canvas,  you 
would  have  no  mud  underneath,  provided  that  it  remained  tight 
and  in  shape  that  the  water  would  flow  off,  and  you  did  not  get 
water  coming  in  underneath,  and  if  that  canvas  would  resist  traffic 
you  would  have  a  mudless  road.  Whatever  we  do,  we  will  eventu- 
ally have  to  put  on  a  water-tight  cover.  Macadam  and  gravel  be- 
comes water-tight,  and  any  successful  road  surface  must  be  so,  or 
else  we  have  a  leaky  roof,  and  the  water  gets  into  the  foundation, 
and  it  has  no  bearing  power. 

There  have  been  some  experiments  made  on  rather  a  small  scale 
to  show  the  bearing  power  of  a  compact  mass  of  material,  grains 
of  sand  and  pieces  of  stone  forming  a  macadam  or  gravel  road. 
They  have  not  been  conducted  far  enough  to  show  to  what  extent 
that  bearing  power  is  affected ;  but  it  shows  that  it  is  a  great  deal 
more  than  we  have  been  led  to  suppose.  We  have  assumed  with 
a  road  6  inches  thick  that  it  had  a  certain  bearing  power,  and  8 
inches  was  increased  in  proportion ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  these 
experiments  seem  to  show  that  it  increases  very  much  more  rapidly, 
M.R.B.— 8 


100  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

the  rate  being  possibly  the  cube  of  the  depth,  so  that  the  difference 
between  6  and  8  inches  in  bearing  power  is  a  great  deal  more  than 
the  relative  thickness  would  indicate.  I  hope,  if  the  scheme  works 
out,  to  make  some  experiments  which  will  in  a  measure  demon- 
strate this  in  a  measurable  way  to  get  some  more  definite  informa- 
tion on  that  point. 

In  the  work  I  have  come  in  contact  with,  I  have  come  to  the 
conclusion,  if  aa  8-inch  road  does  not  hold  up  under  the  traffic,  the 
trouble  is  not  with  the  material  necessarily,  or  that  the  thickness — 
that  is,  adding  material — would  help  matters  very  much.  We  have 
got  a  foundation  that  is  poor.  I  don't  believe  there  are  very  many 
conditions  where  we  are  called  upon  to  build  a  road  that  needs  more 
than  8  inches  of  well-compacted  material.  If  we  need  more  than 
that,  or  put  in  more,  it  simply  means,  probably,  we  are  raising  our 
wet  foundation  until  we  get  a  sufficient  thickness  of  dry  material 
which  will  support  our  traffic. 

In  picking  out  the  material  that  is  to  be  used,  we  know  that  there 
are  different  properties  possessed  by  different  rocks,  and  that  we 
had  explained  to  us  very  clearly  this  morning.  The  difficulty, 
however,  practically  arises  from  the  fact  that  we  have  in  most  in- 
stances little  choice.  Our  choice  is  not  so  much  between  good 
and  bad,  and  possibly  better,  materials ;  but  we  are  practically 
compelled  to  use  what  we  have  on  hand,  for  a  4-mile  increase  in 
haulage  will  almost  double,  or  add  50  to  100  per  cent,  to,  the  cost 
of  our  road.  The  problem  seems  to  me  to  be,  if  we  have  a  poor  ma- 
terial, to  use  the  method  in  applying  that  material  that  will  get  the 
most  out  of  it. 

Again,  we  cannot  say  off-hand  what  is  the  best  material ;  in  oth- 
er words,  there  is  no  best  material  for  all  conditions,  from  the  fact 
that  a  road  depends  for  its  conditions  largely  upon  climatic  condi- 
tions, as  to  whether  it  is  exposed  to  wind  or  rain,  on  the  amount 
and  kind  of  traffic  that  goes  over  it,  and  a  material  that  will  give 
you  excellent  results  under  one  condition,  under  other  conditions 
will  prove  a  failure.  One  road  in  particular  I  have  in  mind.  They 
used  the  best  kind  of  trap  rock,  and  trap  rock  we  know  is  extremely 
hard,  very  tough,  and  satisfied  most  of  our  laboratory  .conditions ; 
but  that  rock  did  not  satisfy  the  traffic  conditions,  for  this  reason : 
That  although  it  was  a  very  hard  and  tough  rock,  and  would  wear 
a  very  long  time,  it  wore  off  but  very  little.  This  particular  piece 
of  road  was  exposed  to  wind  and  to  a  very  small  amount  of  traffic, 
and  the  result  was  that  the  traffic  was  not  sufficient  to  wear  off 
very  much  of  that  material.  It  was  riot  heavy  enough  to  keep  it 
pounded  down,  and  what  did  wear  off  was  blown  away.  That 
same  road,  if  they  had  put  heavy  wagons  over  it  and  enough,  would 
have  been  a  success.  A  softer  material  was  used,  a  limestone  that 
in  the  laboratory  would  not  show  as  good  results ;  but  it  was  better; 
adapted  for  those  conditions,  and  was  a  success.  It  had  a  better 
binding  power  and  was  softer;  it  wore  off  a  little  faster,  and  re- 
mained cemented  together;  and  we  had  a  condition  where  it  proved 
that  a  good  softer  material  was  the  better  material.  So,  as  I  said 
in  beginning,  we  cannot  off-hand  say  any  one  rock  is  best.  If  we 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  101 

have  a  material  that  we  have  got  to  use,  and  we  know,  from  the 
laboratory  examination  of  it,  it  is  not  suitable  for  the  traffic  we 
have  to  provide  for,  the  question  is :  Can  we  use  it  to  better  ad- 
vantage in  one  way  than  another?  Now,  in  the  conditions  I  have 
to  meet  in  Illinois,  I  have  practically  one  material,  and  that  is 
limestone,  but  not  a  great  deal  of  difference.  For  instance,  where 
an  extra  good  material  is  required,  assuming  the  traffic  conditions 
require  a  hard  material  that  would  be  graded  as  20,  this  limestone 
would  grade  8  and  9 ;  so  it  is  rather  a  poor  material.  The  problem 
I  have  .to  solve  is  to  make  the  best  I  can  out  of  poor  material,  and 
it  is  a  problem  many  of  you  have  presented  to  you.  We  have 
found,  and  it  has  been  proved  time  and  again,  that  with  a  traffic 
on  an  ordinary  country  road  as  we  find  it,  with  100  to  150  vehicles 
a  day  for  every  day  in  the  year,  it  requires  a  fairly  good  material ; 
but  with  this  softer  material  we  have,  if  we  should  put  on  and  build 
the  road  in  the  ordinary  fashion,  with  the  1  ^2-inch  size  for  the  top 
surface,  and  then  put  the  3-inch  size  in  the  foundation,  we  would 
have  a  road  that  would  get  smooth  very  shortly  after  it  was  built. 
It  would  look  pretty  well,  and  then  begin  to  look  worse  and  worse. 
It  would  grind  up,  and  the  1^-inch  pieces  of  the  rather  soft  ma- 
terial prove  too  weak  to  hold  up  the  traffic,  and  it  generally  breaks 
up ;  whereas,  with  3-inch  pieces  of  the  material,  the  road  does  not 
break  so  easily,  and  the  wagon  wheel  does  not  crush  it  all  to 
pieces,  as  with  the  smaller  pieces.  In  other  words,  the  surface  of 
the  road,  when  composed  of  the  3-inch  pieces  will  wear  from  five 
to  six  times  as  long  as  when  composed  of  pieces  about  half  the 
size.  If  that  is  the  case,  and  we  have  the  softer  material,  use  the 
larger  pieces  on  top,  and  by  so  doing  get  about  four  or  five  times  as 
much  out  of  the  material  as  you  would  get  following  the  usual 
method  of  construction  of  putting  the  medium  size  pieces  on  top. 
There  is  another  feature  which  you  will  find  of  great  help  and'as- 
sistance  in  rolling  roads  and  getting  them  compact.  Many  of  you 
have  noticed,  in  using  some  materials,  that  the  more  you  roll  it  the 
more  trouble  you  seem  to  have.  The  stone  would  get  a  wavy  mo- 
tion and  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  get  the  stone  to  come  to- 
gether. One  thing  that  will  do  it  quicker  than  anything  else  is  to 
thoroughly  harrow  the  stone  before  you  attempt  to  roll  it,  and 
you  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  quickly  that  material  will  come 
together  and  how  compact  it  will  become,  and  the  explanation  is 
simple.  You  take  a  layer  of  different  sized  material,  and  crushed 
stone  has  different  sizes  in  the  single  layer,  from  the  smallest  piece 
that  has  gone  through  the  screen  up  to  the  largest  that  can  get 
through,  so  that  a  layer  of  crushed  stone  is  not  of  the  same  sized 
pieces.  If  we  harrow  that  material,  and  stir  it  up,  the  largest  sizes 
will  come  to  the  top.  You  know  that,  and  the  grocer  knows  it 
when  he  displays  his  apples  and  fruits.  All  he  has  to  do  is  to  shake 
the  basket.  When  you  want  to  get  the  even  sizes  of  the  stone  on 
top,  shake  it  up,  and  you  can  do  that  with  a  good  strong  harrow ; 
not  a  farmer's  harrow,  but  you  would  have  to  have  one  with  good 
strong  teeth,  the  frame  weighing  perhaps  400  or  500  pounds.  Have 
a  man  ride  it,  and  a  team  can  draw  it  easily.  That  stone  is  shaken 


102  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

up,  and  the  largest  sized  pieces  come  to  the  top,  and  it  all  shakes 
down,  and  you  will  find  that  there  is  no  other  position  in  which 
you  can  put  that  material  and  have  it  denser  or  more  compact ; 
for,  after  you  have  once  broken  up  the  stone,  you  cannot  get  it 
back  the  way  it  was.  You  can  never  get  it  back,  and  if  you  at- 
tempt to  let  a  road  go  without  raking  it  over  you  have  the  large 
pieces  of  stone,  and  then  the  small  pieces,  and  then  larger  pieces, 
and  then  a  space,  and  you  want  to  drop  the  smaller  pieces,  so  that 
the  two  larger  pieces  can  come  together,  and  you  do  that  when  you 
harrow  the  road,  and  the  smaller  pieces  will  get  down,  and  if 
anything  disturbs  the  road  the  smaller  pieces  will  never  come  to 
the  top.  You  have  a  more  stable  road  than  when  you  put  on  your 
roller  and  you  find  the  material  will  wave  and  creep.  We  all  know 
that  even  sized  pieces  in  the  surface  of  roads  get  better  results,  and 
the  harrowing  brings  the  pieces  of  the  same  size  to  the  top,  and 
so  we  get  what  Macadam  laid  down — that  pieces  should  be  as  uni- 
form in  size  as  possible. 

The  quality  of  the  road  material  that  we  have  investigated  in 
this  country,  and  which  was  mentioned  this  morning,  and  its  bind- 
ing power,  I  think  a  wrord  could  be  said  about  that.  In  the  first 
place,  the  tests  on  road  material  were  devised  and  used  primarily 
by  the  French  engineers,  and  in  1878  they  brought  out  a  test  that 
was  designed  to  show  the  relative  value  of  the  materials  to  wear, 
and  that  test  was  very  successfully  developed,  and  we  are  using  it 
to-day.  But  one  thing  they  did  not  attempt  to  measure  or  test. 
They  appreciated  the  fact  that  stone  had  a  binding  quality,  but  ap- 
parently they  did  not  undertake  to  develop  any  way  of  testing  that, 
and  that  has  been  a  test  brought  out  by  engineers  in  this  country, 
and  I  think  it  is  as  important  a  quality  of  a  rock  for  road  purposes 
as  its  hardness  or  toughness,  because,  as  I  said,  in  some  conditions, 
where  you  have  light  traffic,  to  get  a  road  to  bind  together  is  as 
necessary  as  to  have  it  hard,  and  no  matter  how  hard  the  material, 
if  it  has  not  binding  power,  you  will  have  a  failure.  So  the  cement- 
ing value  is  a  most  important  quality  of  road  material. 

You  have  undertaken  in  this  state  work  that  I  think  you  will  not 
regret,  and  which  I  think  other  states  will  follow,  and  that  is  the 
employment  of  convicts  in  preparing  the  road  material.  In  Illinois 
we  have  had  some  experience  in  that,  and  I  think  perhaps  a  word 
as  to  the  success  of  that  plan  as  we  find  it  there  may  be  of  some 
interest.  We  have  two  state  prisons  in  Illinois,  unfortunately, 
and  we  have  erected  a  crusher  plant  at  each  place.  It  happens 
where  the  prisons  are  situated  there  is  limestone  rock  in  consid- 
erable abundance.  These  quarries  have  now  been  operated  for 
about  three  years.  The  stone  is  distributed  by  the  requisitions  of 
the  State  Highway  Commission,  and  we  give  it  to  the  township, 
which  is  the  local  community  carrying  on  the  road  work,  free  of 
any  cost  except  that  of  transportation.  They  must  pay  the  freight. 
They  must  also  use  this  material  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
that  we  give.  We  do  not  give  the  same  directions  in  every  in- 
stance, for  the  simple  reason  that  in  some  places  they  have  never 
done  anything,  and  if  they  get  the  material  on  the  road  and  make  a 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  103 

reasonable  showing,  that  is  a  great  advance  in  that  community.  In 
other  communities  they  use  some  local  stone,  and  the  thing  is  to 
have  them  use  it  and  get  better  results  than  ever  before.  In  other 
cases  we  make  an  experimental  road,  and  furnish  machinery  and 
men  to  take  charge  of  the  work.  This  has  proved  a  very  success- 
ful plan,  and  there  in  Illinois  I  do  not  know  how  we  would  have 
got  on  without  the  assistance  of  this  material  in  making  the  roads 
we  have  been  able  to  make  so  far.  We  went  after  the  railroads,  and 
got  from  them  fairly  good  rates.  The  law  permitted  the  Highway 
Commission  to  make  a  special  arrangement  for  freight  rates  with 
the  railroads,  and  I  undertook  to  see  the  various  railroad  managers, 
presidents,  or  whoever  I  could  see  of  the  forty  roads  that  are  in 
the  state,  and  I  found  that  they  lent  a  very  willing  ear  to  the  prop- 
osition, and  gave  a  very  considerable  reduction  from  the  ordinary 
rates,  and  we  have  in  effect  a  half  cent  rate  throughout  the  entire 
state. 

There  are  in  Illinois  sofne  very  extensive  stone  industries,  and 
there  was  some  opposition  at  first  from  them ;  but  as  they  consid- 
ered the  matter  a  little  more  closely  their  opposition  died  down. 
There  is  opposition  in  Illinois  to  the  useful  employment  of  pris- 
oners on  the  part  of  the  labor  people,  from  the  fact  that  they  claim 
that  whatever  they  make  which  is  put  in  the  open  market  against 
free  labor  is  an  injustice  to  free  labor. 

In  this  employment  of  convicts  in  crushing  stone,  it  does  not 
interfere  in  most  sections  of  the  country  with  the  existing  indus- 
tries. Take  it  in  Washington  or  Illinois,  the  material  that  is  go- 
ing to  be  produced  and  is  produced  by  these  convicts  goes  to 
places  where  they  did  not  buy  any  before,  and  therefore  could  not 
interfere  with  any  existing  industry.  We  cannot  interfere  with 
free  labor,  because  we  are  interfering  with  no  industry ;  but  it 
makes  more  work  for  free  labor  on  the  roads.  The  way  it  works 
out  in  Illinois,  it  simply  affects  the  prisoners  in  the  prison.  There 
is  no  increase  to  the  taxpayers,  because  the  prisoners  had  to  be 
fed  and  clothed  and  housed,  so  that  whatever  they  produced  in  the 
way  of  crushed  stone  was  not  produced  at  practically  any  increased 
cost  to  the  taxpayers.  I  do  not  see  how  it  is  possible  to  work  out 
a  more  equitable  plan  of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  state  than 
to  put  the  convicts  to  work  in  the  stockades  and  quarries,  and  it 
is  more  humane  for  the  convicts,  because  it  keeps  them  outside, 
and  our  experience  has  been  that  those  men  working  outside  are  in 
far  better  condition  mentally  and  physically,  and  discipline  is  main- 
tained much  more  readily  and  easily,  than  where  men  are  kept 
confined  inside  and  in  more  or  less  unhealthy  and  unsanitary  con- 
ditions. 

I  will  add  a  word  as  to  the  use  of  convict  labor.  We  made  use 
of  them  in  a  bridge  test  we  are  carrying  on  now.  We  have  a  great 
many  streams  in  Illinois  crossed  by  roads,  a  great  many  bridges, 
and  our  bridge  expenditure  has  been  more  than  our  road  expendi- 
ture, so  the  question  of  bridges  is  a  very  important  one,  and  we 
have  taken  it  up  rather  expensively.  We  built  the  South  Illinois 
Penitentiary,  and  have  a  concrete  bridge  with  an  18-foot  roadway 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

girder  type;  the  floor  hung  up  into  the  girders.  The  convicts 
built  tKe  bridge.  That  experiment  was  done  with  the  ordinary 
labor  conditions  outside,  and,  where  it  would  have  cost  us  from 
$6,000  to  $7,000,  the  cost  of  the  experiment  to  the  state,  using  con- 
vict labor,  I  do  not  think  will  be  over  $800.  I  don't  think  there  is 
any  better  use  that  can  be  made  of  convict  labor  than  the  carrying 
on  of  some  of  these  investigations  that  without  this  system  seems 
to  make  the  price  prohibitive.  I  believe  this  experiment  is  per- 
haps one  of  the  first  instances  of  the  employment  of  convict  labor 
in  scientific  investigations. 


DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  M.  O.  Eldredge:  There  are  a  good  many  sections  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  where  they  have  trap  rock  and  other  forms  of 
igneous  rock,  tough  and  hard.  Did  your  remarks  apply  only  in  the 
cases  of  the  softer  rock? 

Mr.  Johnson:  Yes;  the  ordinary  traffic  conditions  as  you  find 
them  on  the  country  roads.  If  you  have  a  very  hard,  igneous  rock, 
do  not  attempt  to  put  the  2^2  or  3  inch  stone  on  top ;  but,  when  you 
put  in  a  layer  of  rock,  harrow  it.  It  will  save  rolling.  Then  put 
your  next  layer  of  rock,  which  may  be  1^-inch.  Harrow  that,  so 
as  to  save  the  road.  If  you  attempt  to  use  that  material  for  a  city 
street,  then  I  have  seen  trap  rock  of  the  very  hardest  kind  used  in 
the  3-inch  size,  where  there  is  enough  traffic  to  hold  it  down. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  I  come  from  a  limestone  country,  and  we 
used  to  have  good  roads  in  Southern  Indiana.  I  am  very  much 
interested  in  this  discussion  concerning  limestone,  and  this  diffi- 
culty which  you  had  with  the  small  stone,  and  I  was  wondering 
whether  that  was  not  the  same  difficulty  that  first  came  out  here  in 
this  country  when  the  crusher  was  used — that  in  crushing  the  stone 
there  was  an  excess  of  fine  material.  If  you  had  left  a  lot  of  the 
fine  stuff  at  the  quarry,  and  not  tried  to  use  everything  that  came 
out  of  the  crusher,  would  you  not  have  had  a  better  road  for  less 
money  than  trying  to  cart  all  the  material  on  the  road? 

Mr.  Johnson:  I  would  say  in  this  connection  that  in  the  large 
crushers  we  find  that  the  proportion  of  dust  made  is  not  much  in 
excess  of  what  is  absolutely  required  for  binding  purposes.  It 
depends  a  little  upon  what  layer  of  material  happens  to  be  in.  We 
have  here  a  few  of  our  reports,  which  give  in  some  detail  the  use  of 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  105 

convict  labor  and  describe  the  work  there.     If  any  of  you  want 
them,  I  shall  be  glad  to  let  you  have  them. 

Mr.  Lancaster:  There  is  one  point  that  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  brought  out  very  clearly,  and  which  I  think  may  be  worth 
mentioning,  and  that  is  the  soil  conditions  in  Illinois.  The  soil  is 
a  very  black,  sticky  character  in  most  cases,  and  I  think  Mr.  John- 
son will  agree  with  me  that,  where  the  smaller  material  was  used, 
it  was  inclined  to  get  out. of  the  road.  When  the  wagon  came  on 
the  road,  and  went  over  the  black  mud,  it  was  inclined  to  kick  out 
badly,  and  the  use  of  large  stones  was  in  order  to  prevent  the 
material  kicking  out  so  badly. 

Mr.  Johnson :  In  roads  that  are  used  for  automobile  traffic,  some- 
times, where  you  find  a  little  nest  or  nests,  and  oftentimes,  one  will 
slap  on  some  screenage,  go  away,  and  it  looks  fine ;  and  again,  often- 
times, the  way  the  stones  will  come  from  the  crusher  once  in  a 
while,  the  small  pieces  seem  to  get  together,  and  if  it  is  not  care- 
fully harrowed  the  automobile  traffic  will  always  detect  those  places 
where  there  is  a  nest  of  small  material.  So  if  you  can  harrow  your 
stone,  and  get  it  more  evenly  distributed,  it  will  wear  very  much 
more  satisfactorily,  and  won't  tear  up  near  as  much  with  the  large 
pieces  of  stone  as  with  the  smaller  pieces.  With  any  severe  amount 
of  traffic,  you  cannot  maintain  a  macadam  road  anyway,  and  have 
to  put  something  with  it. 

Mr.  Lancaster:    Have  you  used  oil  or  coal  tar? 

Mr.  Johnson :  Yes ;  last  year  we  used  some  oil  and  coal  tar  on 
two  or  three  miles.  I  do  not  know  if  it  is  going  to  prove  the  best 
that  could  be  used.  The  chemists  are  not  altogether  decided  as  to 
what  we  ought  to  use,  and  after  we  have  gotten  material  I  don't 
know  if  the  engineers  have  made  up  their  minds  as  to  the  method 
we  should  use — whether  we  should  mix  the  material  beforehand 
and  lay  it  in  the  road,  or  whether  the  road  should  be  laid  and  the 
material  put  in,  or  whether  we  should  use  another  method  and  force 
the  material  in  putting  the  tar  into  a  tank  with  air  pressure  and 
squirting  it  into  the  road.  If  there  is  any  considerable  traffic,  we 
will  have  to  do  something  with  it.  It  is  no  use  talking  about  mac- 
adam roads  and  maintaining  them,  if  we  are  going  to  have  much 
motor  traffic  over  them. 


106  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Mr.  Morrison:  I  can  see  how  the  larger  pieces  of  rock  on  the 
surface  of  the  road  would  give  greater  wear ;  but  in  my  experience, 
wherever  the  larger  sizes  of  No.  1  have  come  to  the  surface  as  soon 
as  the  binder  commences  to  go,  that  is  the  weak  portion  of  the  road. 
The  uneven  shape  of  the  larger  portions  of  the  rock,  giving  more 
lever  arm,  is  more  likely  to  loosen  than  where  the  stone  is  smaller ; 
and  also,  in  the  taking  away  of  the  binder  by  the  automobile,  that 
sooner  gives  unevenness  to  the  road,  and  in  my  experience  and 
judgment  that  is  the  first  part  of  the  road  to  go. 

Mr.  Johnson:  You  are  talking  more  of  individual  stones,  I  think ; 
but  it  would  be  different  where  you  have  a  patch  of  say  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet.  Of  course,  it  is  soft  limestone  I  am  talking  about,  and 
we  would  not  use  it  if  we  could  get  anything  better,  and  under 
those  conditions  I  would  always  suggest 'putting  the  larger  pieces 
on  top. 

Mr.  Morrison:  Would  the  wear  on  the  soft  material  be  enough 
to  furnish  new  binder? 

Mr.  Johnson:  I  would  say,  in  reply  to  this,  you  will  find,  if  you 
harrow  the  material,  that  if  you  get  a  piece  of  stone  lying  say  on 
end  it  will  tip  round  and  work  to  the  top,  and  after  it  gets  to  the  top 
it  will  knock  out ;  but  if  you  harrow  you  will  find  it  has  a  tendency 
to  edge  up  and  give  a  larger  surface,  then  you  come  with  your  roller 
and  down  it  goes,  and  you  have  the  most  compact  conditions  you 
can  get.  The  road  is  firmer  when  it  is  thus  keyed  together ;  but  if 
you  separate  them,  and  put  a  lot  of  binder  all  round  them,  as  soon 
as  the  binder  goes  the  road  goes,  and  for  that  reason  the  road 
should  be  firmly  made  before  the  binder  goes  on  it. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  I  would  like  to  call  attention  to  the  pro- 
gram for  to-morrow.  It  will  be  a  great  day,  and  a  day  to  justify 
the  presence  of  a  thousand  people  from  King  county  alone.  We 
ought  to  have  an  address  from  Prof.  Clifford  Richardson,  of  New 
York,  who  is  the  recognized  standard  authority  regarding  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  asphalt.  He  is  going  to  be  with  us  to-morrow,  to 
give  us  a  short  talk  on  Asphalt  Macadam  Roadways.  He  is  going 
to  tell  us  what  he  believes,  and  as  a  rule  after  eight  or  ten  years' 
discussion  we  have  found  out  that  he  was  right  in  the  beginning. 
He  is  recognized  as  the  standard  authority  in  the  world.  Wo  have 
with  us  Mr.  E.  Purnell  Hooley,  of  Nottingham,  England,  who  is  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  107 

inventor  of  the  use  of  tar  in  connection  with  road  surfaces  in  Eng- 
land, being  the  patentee  of  the  tarmac  process.  When  Mr.  Hill  took 
us  to  Paris  to  attend  the  International  Road  Congress,  he  also  took 
us  into  England,  and  I  spent  two  weeks  there  going  over  the  roads 
part  of  the  time  with  Mr.  Lancaster  and  Mr.  Hill,  and  we  visited 
these  roads  in  the  vicinity  of  Nottingham.  We  went  all  through 
what  was  the  old  Sherwood  Forest,  where  Robin  Hood  held  forth, 
and  we  found  there  roads  of  remarkable  beauty  and  remarkable 
strength,  built  by  Mr.  Hooley.  He  has  consented  to  come  all  the 
way  from  Central  England  to  Seattle,  and  to  tell  us  how  he  built 
th<?se  roads.  He  will  be  with  us  to-morrow,  and  if  you  have  any 
friend  or  neighbor  who  is  interested  in  road  building  we  have  in 
Mr.  Richardson  and  Mr.  Hooley  men  who  will  interest  them.  If 
they  want  to  know  anything  about  the  modern  methods  of  using 
a  binder  which  is  slightly  plastic,  these  are  the  men  who  stand  on 
top  and  are  the  world's  authorities  in  those  matters. 

We  are  also  to  have  Mr.  Harold  Parker  of  Massachusetts.  Mr. 
Parker  was  taken  over  some  of  the  roads  in  England,  and  has  pur- 
chased a  machine  to  work  the  roads  as  nearly  as  possible  after  the 
same  manner  as  that  in  which  Mr.  Hooley  makes  his  roads.  Mr. 
G.  W.  Kurnmer  will  speak  on  Vitrified  Brick.  Mr.  Lancaster,  who, 
as  you  know,  is  an  artist  in  road  construction,  and  has  gone  al- 
most all  over  the  world,  is  going  to  give  us  a  paper  on  Boulevards. 
This  convention  is  a  wonderful  school,  and  everything  that  has  been 
said  here  to-day,  though  it  may  seem  dry  to  men  who  are  not  inter- 
ested in  the  movement,  is  more  than  interesting  to  those  who  have  the 
movement  at  heart.  The  men  who  are  interested  in  this  movement 
must  be  possessed  of  great  patience,  and  they  must  also  have  the  nec- 
essary grit,  which  I  think  you  all  have. 


108  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


WEDNESDAY,  JULY  TTH,  9  A.M. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  have  much  pleasure  in  introducing  to  you 
Mr.  John  C.  Lawrence,  who  will  preside  over  your  deliberations  this 
morning.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Railway  Commission  of  the  State 
of  Washington,  a  farmer,  a  banker,  and  last,  but  not  least,  a  Good 
Roads  enthusiast.  Nobody  has  done  more  for  the  highways  of  this 
state,  both  in  season  and  out  of  season.  I  am  introducing  to  you  a 

man  who  combines  in  one,  railway  man,  farmer,  banker,  and  Good 
Roads  expert. 

Mr.  Lawrence:  I  am  very  thankful  to  the  biggest  Good.  Roads 
man  in  the  state  of  Washington  for  having  given  me  the  honor  of 
presiding  this  morning.  It  is  certainly  an  honor  to  be  present  on 
an  occasion  of  this  kind,  an  event  that  will  live  long  in  the  history 
of  the  Good  Roads  work  in  this  state.  I  think  we  cannot  blame  any 
resident  of  the  state  of  Washington  for  being  enthusiastic  in 
the  matter  of  good  roads  under  the  leadership  of  Samuel  Hill. 
(Applause.) 

Mr.  Lawrence  then  introduced  Mr.  George  W.  Kummer,  of  Seat- 
tle, who  read  an  interesting  paper  on  the  subject  of 


VITRIFIED  BRICK,  ITS  CONSTITUTION  AND 
MANUFACTURE. 

"Vitrified  Brick,  Its  Constitution  and  Manufacture,"  is  a  subject 
broad  in  its  scope  and  carries  with  it  in  its  technical  and  mechanical 
application  many  features,  governed,  in  part  at  least,  by  condi- 
tions present  in  different  localities. 

The  primary  element  of  a*  vitrified  brick  is  a  suitable  clay,  a 
mineralized  clay,  a  clay  th'at  has  annealing  qualities.  To  lay  down 
an  inflexible  rule  as  to  what  this  clay  should  be,  as  by  a  chemical 
analysis,  or  to  be  specific  in  the  matter  of  manufacture,  as  relates 
to  the  entire  field  of  the  brick  industry,  would  be  but  idle  words. 
There  are  no  two  veins  of  clay  that  are  alike  in  their  elemental 
structure,  and  therefore  a  corresponding  latitude  must  be  given  in 
the  discussion  of  this  question,  and  which,  from  the  nature  thereof, 
must  be  treated  in  a  somewhat  general  way,  or  else  I  would  feel 
that  I  was  overstepping  the  bounds  of  propriety,  and  the  very  ar- 
gument used  might  prove  disastrous  if  generally  applied.  To  meet 
the  conditions  of  the  subject-matter,  the  clay  must  make  a  brick 
that — as  our  good  engineer  tells  us — is  free  from  lime,  free  from 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  109 

laminations,  spalls,  checks,  and  cracks,  that  is  homogeneous  and 
impervious  to  moisture,  and  that  is  vitrified.  It  must  not  lose  more 
than  a  certain  percentage  in  a  so-called  standard  rattler,  it  must 
not  absorb  over  a  given  percentage  of  water  in  a  specified  number 
of  hours,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  fixed.  Here  we  have  defined, 
arbitrary  laws  quite  universally  adopted. 

I  must  take  the  position,  perhaps  boldly,  that  it  is  impossible 
at  all  places  to  successfully  manufacture  perfect  vitrified  brick 
within  the  limits  of  defined  specifications  that  are  universal  in 
their  application ;  and  I  furthermore  assert  that  high-grade  vitri- 
fied bricks  are  liable  to  fall  below  their  entitled  standard  in  value, 
because  of  what  I  am  obliged  to  call  inconsistent  extremes  in  the 
matter  of  absorption  on  the  one  hand  and  the  rattler  test  as  the 
other  extremity.  I  repeat  that  all  clays  vary,  not  alone  in  widely 
separated  districts  or  portions  of  our  land,  but  in  the  same  locality 
as  well,  and  therefore  it  is  a  physical  impossibility,  without  re- 
striction to  territory,  to  produce  uniform  brick  that  will  show 
their  best  results  under  one  defined  system  of  testing,  wherein  the 
limits  are  set  with  no  regard  to  the  physical  conditions  of  the  ma- 
terial. 

I  repeat  that,  in  the  first  place,  a  suitable  clay,  a  mineralized  clay, 
if  you  please,  is  required  from  which  to  make  a  vitrified,  or  what  I 
prefer  to  call  an  annealed,  brick.  Secondly,  the  proper  grinding 
of  the  clay  and  the  perfect  formation  of  the  brick  in  the  green  state 
are  absolutely  essential.  A  vitrified  brick  of  suitable  clay,  proper- 
ly made  and  finished,  is  in  itself  an  iron-stone  substance.  By  chem- 
ical action  and  changes  during  the  various  processes  of  manufac- 
ture, the  constituent  elements  of  the  clay  have  been  converted  into 
new  forms,  and  the  finished  brick  is  a  homogeneous  mass,  free 
from  lime  as  an  active  element ;  is  annealed,  every  clay  particle 
being  bonded;  in  short,  such  a  brick  is  an  igneous  rock,  dense  in 
its  structure,  practically  impervious,  resisting  abrasion,  and  yet 
retaining  grittiness  in  its  structure,  and  in  contact  has  an  attractive 
force  for  steel  and  iron,  and  is  enduring  to  the  end  of  time  as 
against  the  deteriorating  agencies  of  the  elements. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  shrinkages  of  varying  degrees  occur 
in  clays.  To  make  the  highest  quality  of  vitrified  brick,  uniform 
shrinkages  must  be  had.  It  should  be  a  clay  that  by  the  lapse  of 
ages  and  under  earth  pressure  has  been  purified  by  chemical  pro- 
cesses in  nature's  wondrous  laboratory.  Such  clays  are  found  in 
rock  or  shale  form.  It  may  be  possible  to  make  vitrified  brick  from 
a  single  clay,  guaranteeing  absolute  uniformity  of  structure,  or  it 
may  be  possible  to  blend  clay  and  a  silicate  to  insure  density  and 
overcome  porosity.  Analyses  of  clays  are  common,  yet  I  hold  that 
the  only  true  test,  the  only  safe  trial,  of  a  clay,  is  the  manufacture 
of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  brick  for  a  burning  in  a  regular  kiln,  in 
the  regular  way,  and  tried  out  by  the  only  infallible  chemist  known, 
that  mighty  agency,  fire.  Though  analyses  are  very  similar  of 
clays  from  different  parts  of  the  country,  yet  they  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  safe  guide  as  universally  applied.  The  relative  quantity 


HO  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

of  silica,  alumina,  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  etc.,  may  be  set  down  as 
practically  from  the  same  clay,  yet  the  active  elements  are  not  the 
same,  and  a  perfect  product  is  impractical.  It  is  a  well-known  prin- 
ciple that,  during  the  burning  of  clay  in  high  heats,  the  silica  and 
alumina  form  a  silicate  of  alumina,  which  becomes  the  basis  of  the 
ware  being  made,  and  here  comes  the  diverging  point  as  between 
a  fire  brick  and  a  vitrified  brick,  and,  literally  considered,  I  want 
to  take  issue  with  statements  I. have  seen  to  the  effect  that  fire 
clay  vitrified  brick  are  made.  If  a  clay  will  make  a  fire  brick,  it 
cannot  make  a  vitrified  brick,  and  the  difference  in  the  chemical 
action  or  bonding  of  the  clay  particles  is  an  illustration  of  what  a 
vitrified  brick  really  is.  In  a  fire  clay,  the  percentage  of  silica  and 
alumina  must  be  in  such  proportions  that  the  iron  and  all  other 
deleterious  matters  combined  cannot  successfully  attach  and  dis- 
turb or  unite  with  the  basic  matter;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  for  a 
fire  brick,  when  the  silica  and  alumina  are  held  in  bond,  there 
cannot  be  an  excessive  amount  of  silica,  else  it  becomes  a  free 
agent,  and,  uniting  with  the  other  fluxes,  becomes  a  destroying 
agent,  and  the  basic  matter  is  dissolved.  If  this  destroying  ele- 
ment is  not  present  in  a  fire  brick,  then  such  brick,  though  thor- 
oughly bonded,  is  porous ;  in  short,  has  lungs,  through  the  medium 
of  which  such  brick  has  respiration,  meeting  the,  demands  of  con- 
traction and  expansion,  but  under  impact  or  abrasion  lacks  physical 
strength.  If  this  condition,  as  above  set  forth,  is  present  in  a  so- 
called  clay,  perfect  vitrification  or  annealing  cannot  take  place.  I 
have  seen  shale  clays,  highly  refractory,  that,  when  the  point  of 
fusion  was  reached,  the  entire  mass  of  clay  became  honeycombed, 
and  when  drawn  from  the  kiln  such  brick  floated  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  like  cork;  whereas,  brick  made  from  clay  from  another 
part  of  the  country,  yet  in  chemical  analyses  much  like  the  former, 
when  brought  to  the  same  degree  of  heat,  melted  and  made  lique- 
fied clay,  or,  if  you  please,  vitrified  molasses. 

To  make  a  good  vitrified  brick,  I  claim  that  the  basic  matter 
must  be  a  silicate  of  alumina,  and  the  action  from  this  point  of 
amalgamation  must  be  the  reverse  to  that  of  making  a  fire  brick. 
There  must  be  a  sufficient  percentage  of  the  basic  matter  to  give  a 
heat  range,  guaranteeing  against  fluxing  when  during  the  burning 
the  crisis  is  reached  of  initial  vitrification  and  melting.  Yet  a  suit- 
able clay  for  the  manufacture  of  vitrified  brick,  whether  a  single 
product  or  a  blend,  must  contain  sufficient  quantities  of  flux,  of 
iron,  etc.,  so  that  the  necessarily  inherent  quality  of  refractoriness 
is  overcome,  and  a  perfect  amalgamation  of  clay  particles  takes 
place,  giving  the  brick  uniform  structure,  making  it  homogeneous 
and  impervious.  Personally,  I  cannot  lay  too  much  stress  upon 
the  absolute  necessity  of  a  uniform  clay  in  the  point  of  shrinkage, 
for  in  bricks  made  of  clays  that  have  different  shrinkages  the  clay 
particles  cannot  be  uniformly  or  cohesively  bonded.  Nor  can 
brick  made  from  such  a  mixture  be  burned  perfectly,  for  clays  of 
varying  shrinkages  must  be  measured  according  to  the  degrees  of 
heat  that  they  will  endure  before  fluxing,  and  can  only  be  carried 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  HI 

in  the  heat  range  to  the  degree  which  the  weakest  portion  of  the 
clay  mass  will  endure.  Otherwise  they  will  be  structurally  weak. 
In  outward  appearance  they  may  be  high-grade,  and  they  may 
even  do  themselves  credit  in  the  rattler  test,  as  now  so  universally 
applied.  They  may  even  be  tough,  and  particularly  so  when  dry 
from  a  kiln.  Again,  brick  made  from  such  mixed  clays  are  more 
subject  to  laminations,  owing  to  the  unequal  state  of  plasticity, 
and  when  in  service,  and  after  exposure  to  dampness  and  the  ac- 
tion of  the  elements,  and  the  constant  impact  of  travel,  the  weak 
spots  manifest  themselves,  rand  the  brick  spall  and  shell  off  by 
reason  of  imperfections  which  cannot  exist  where  a  perfect  bond- 
ing of  clay  particles  is  present  throughout  the  entire  brick,  as  is 
the  case  when  a  single  clay  or  a  blend  of  uniform  shrinkage  is 
used. 

Having  a  suitable  clay,  the  preparation  thereof  for  brick  making 
in  the  first  step — i.  e.,  the  grinding — is  an  important  one.  Usually 
the  shale  or  rock  is  reduced  to  small  pieces  by  being  run  through 
a  rock  crusher,  or,  as  in  some  cases,  it  is  fed  directly  into  what  in 
the  trade  are  known  as  dry  pans,  where  it  is  ground  into  degrees 
of  fineness  as  the  manufacturer  may  direct;  but  I  do  not  deem  it 
important  in  this  paper  to  go  into  detail  in  the  mechanical  opera- 
tion of  brick  making,  only  as  to  some  special  features  as  these 
points  are  reached  in  this  discussion.  The  grinding  of  clay,  how- 
ever, I  hold  to  be  very  important.  If  there  is  uniform  fineness  in 
the  clay  particles,  the  degree  of  fineness  being  governed  by  the 
character  of  the  clay  used,  a  uniform  bond  will  result;  but  if  the 
clay  is  not  uniformly  fine,  or  is  not  uniform  in  quality,  there  will 
be  voids,  and  perfect  amalgamation  of  particles  will  not  take  place. 
Nor  is  it  possible  to  produce  as  strong  a  body,  or  as  perfect  a  brick, 
from  a  coarse  ground  clay  as  from  a  clay  that  has  been  reduced 
to  flour  form.  The  ground  clay  next  goes  to  the  tempering  mills 
in  a  dry  state.  In  these  mills  water  is  ground  into  the  clay  to 
bring  it  to  a  degree  of  plasticity  so  that  the  brick  can  be  formed, 
and  that  they  will  have  sufficient  strength  of  adhesion  of  clay  par- 
ticles, so  that  they  can  be  handled  safely  and  will  bear  sufficient 
weight  to  permit  piling  on  cars  to  be  carried  into  tunnels,  where 
the  water  that  has  been  ground  into  the  clay  is  again  driven  off. 

From  the  point  of  the  dry  clay  in  powdered  form  to  the  dried 
brick,  the  product  has  passed  through  very  important  stages  that 
have  much  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the  finished  brick.  In  the 
tempering  of  the  clay,  during  which  the  water  is  ground  into  the 
clay  mass,  the  subject  of  uniformity  of  action  again  plays  an  im- 
portant part.  While  primarily  this  process  is  for  the  purpose  as 
above  set  forth,  yet  another  very  important  factor  in  the  brick 
structure  here  manifests  itself;  for  it  is  during  the  time  the  brick 
is  being  formed  and  dried  that  the  first  or  initial  bonding  of  the  in- 
finitesimal particles  takes  place,  and  it  is  a  self-evident  fact  that 
if  the  clay  mass  is  not  uniformly  moistened,  or  not  sufficiently 
moistened,  there  cannot  be  a  perfect  and  uniform  bond,  an  essen- 
tial to  perfect  brick.  No  more  can  nor  will  clay  particles  form  per- 


H2  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

feet  cohesion  when  not  uniformly  tempered  or  properly  moistened, 
nor  if  of  widely  varying  degrees  of  fineness,  than  will  a  cement  of 
similar  degrees  of  irregularity  in  fineness  set  perfectly.  It  is  during 
this  stage  of  drying,  when  the  mechanical  water  is  being  driven  off, 
that  the  first  shrinkage  of  the  brick  takes  place ;  the  degree  oi 
shrinkage  from  the  original  size  being  governed  by  the  character  of 
the  clay  used,  and  therefore  beyond  the  power  of  any  set  rule  that 
can  be  laid  down  to  control.  Before  following  the  brick  to  the  next 
stage  beyond  the  point  of  drying,  I  want  to  go  back  in  the  process 
of  manufacture  to  the  clay  in  its  tempered  state  and  now  being 
put  into  brick  form.  This,  as  is  well  known,  is  almost  without  ex- 
ception through  what  is  known  as  a  stiff  mud  brick  machine  pro- 
cess. The  tempered  clay  is  fed  into  a  steel  case,  of  varying  diam- 
eters, according  to  the  capacity  of  the  machine,  and  through  the 
center  of  which  case  or  cylinder  is  a  revolving  shaft,  to  which  are 
attached  knives  or  blades,  by  the  movements  of  which  the  clay  is 
forced, into  and  through  dies  from  which  columns  of  clay  issue  in 
continuous  lengths,  and  which  columns  are,  by  mechanical  device, 
cut  into  brick  size  and  shape.  There  are  two  styles  of  dies  in  use 
in  forming  these  clay  columns  in  the  manufacture  of  the  so-called 
standard  size  brick,  which  are  approximately  2^"  x  4"  x  Sy2".  In 
one  instance  the  column  issues  and  is  cut  crosswise  every  2*^> 
inches,  this  making  what  is  known  as  "side-cut  brick."  In  the  oth- 
er case,  two  columns  of  clay  issue  from  the  die,  the  columns  being 
cut  every  8y2  inches,  this  making  what  is  known  as  "end-cut  brick." 
It  is  during  this  process  of  forming  the  clay  columns  that  lamina- 
tions in  brick,  if  they  exist,  have  their  inception,  and  it  is  in  this 
mechanical  construction  that  I  maintain  that  special  care  should  be- 
taken in  the  form  or  shape  of  the  knives  or  blades,  and  particularly 
in  the  construction  of  the  die  in  point  of  lines  of  issue  guiding  the 
clay.  I  maintain  that  every  clay  has  its  own  peculiar  characteris- 
tic, and  that  dies  constructed  on  the  same  pattern  are  not  fit  for 
general  use.  The  degrees  of  plasticity  or  refractoriness  of  the 
clay  must  be  thoroughly  understood  before  the  lines  of  a  suitable 
die  or  issue  can  be  safely  drawn.  Again,  it  is  not  a  safe  plan  to 
indiscriminately  use  a  lubricated  die,  for  some  clays  make  a  better 
brick  when  a  dry  die  is  used.  In  a  lubricated  die,  the  issue  of  the 
clay  column  is  absolutely  free  in  all  points  of  contact  with  the 
metal,  giving  no  side  resistance  in  the  issue;  whereas,  there  are 
high-grade  clays  that  demand  this  retarding  influence  to  give  the 
best  internal  structure  to  the  brick.  This  same  principle  carries 
back  into  the  brick  machine,  and  should  be  the  determining  factor 
as  between  side-cut  and  end-cut  brick;  for  I  maintain,  as  has  been 
proven  by  actual  experience,  that  all  laminations  can  be  avoided  in 
vitrified  brick  by  a  study  of  the  clay,  and  the  construction  of  me- 
chanical appliances  that  are  suited  to  the  clay,  as  against  the  far  too 
common  practice  of  trying  to  make  a  clay  suit  the  machine,  just  be- 
cause it  makes  brick  successfully  somewhere  else  and  the  machine 
man  told  you  so.  Furthermore,  while  I  know  I  am  treading  on 
disputed  and  possibly  dangerous  ground,  yet  I  want  to  assert  as 
my  belief  that  a  better  standard  size  brick  can  be  made,  with  prop- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  113 

erly  constructed  die,  in  end-cut  form  than  if  made  side-cut,  even  if 
the  side-cut  is  re-pressed  and  the  end-cut  is  taken  directly  from 
the  machine.  I  take  this  position  because  in  the  side-cut  article  the 
clay  issues  approximately  4  inches  thick  by  8^/2  inches  wide  in  a  sin- 
gle column,  which  is  cut  at  right  angles  through  the  breadth  of  the 
column ;  whereas,  the  end-cut  brick  columns,  two  to  the  issue,  di- 
vided in  the  die  by  a  steel  center,  issue  2J/£  inches  wide  and  4  inches 
thick  each,  and  are  cut  through  the  narrow  column,  the  clay  for- 
mation in  the  brick  running  with  the  column,  whereas  in  the  side- 
cut  form  the  clay  formation  is  cut  at  right  angles  and  severed  for 
each  brick  thickness.  Furthermore,  it  is  a  far  simpler  thing  to  con- 
struct a  die  that  will  control  and  thereby  guard  against  twists  and 
laminations  in  slender  clay  columns  than  to  overcome  the  same 
condition  in  a  greater  mass  of  clay  in  one  issue.  After  the  brick 
has  been  formed,  it  is  common  practice  and  often  required  to  re- 
press the  product.  Outside  of  shaping  up  the  edges,  or  of  forming 
lug's  on  the  brick,  or  of  stamping  the  name  of  the  maker  upon  the 
pro.duct,  the  re-pressing  has  no  value,  and  it  is  an  open  question, 
at  least  in  the  case  of  some  clays,  whether  it  is  not  an  injury,  caused 
by  the  sudden  blow  of  the  re-press  and  the  almost  instant  release  of 
the  pressure  that  is  put  upon  the  brick.  Referring  again  to  the 
brick  during  the  drying,  the  same  inflexible  law  of  conditions  and 
quality  of  clay  in  respective  districts  controlling,  the  one  general 
principle  that  is  most  important  is  the  time  required  and  the  time 
allowed  for  perfect  evaporation  of  the  mechanical  moisture.  No 
limit  can  be  set  for  this  as  a  universal  rule  to  be  observed.  But 
the  essential  feature  of  this  process  is  that  the  drying  shall  not 
be  unduly  forced ;  for  it  is  during  this  season  that  the  clay  particles 
are  cohering,  and  if  this  process  of  knitting  is  forced  a  perfect  bond 
cannot  result.  A  brick  that  is  to  be  carried  to  a  state  of  vitrification 
must  have  all  the  elements  of  perfection  at  the  stage  of  coming 
from  the  dry  kilns.  It  must  have  had  the  advantages  of  perfect 
and  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  kilns,  with  increasing  degrees  of 
heat  from  the  green  state  to  the  dried  product,  which  is  accom- 
plished in  modern  brick  driers  by  mechanical  devices  that  operate 
most  successfully  to  thermometer  tests ;  the  heat  for  this  purpose 
now  almost  universally  being  drawn  from  kilns  that  have  been 
finished  and  where  the  firing  has  ceased. 

From  the  drier,  through  which  the  brick  have  gone  on  steel  cars, 
the  driers  being  in  tunnel  form,  the  brick  are  taken  into  a  cooling 
room,  where  they  remain  until  they  can  be  handled  by  men,  when 
they  are  set  in  kilns  ready  for  the  final  treatment  by  that  element, 
fire,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  destroying  agendies,  and  yet  makes 
from  a  true  clay  one  of  a  very  few  things  in  existence  that  is  not 
destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  elements,  namely,  vitrified  brick. 
There  are  kilns  of  many  styles,  yet  the  true  principle  of  a  kiln  is 
that  it  shall  have  a  free  draft.  There  are  many  ramifications  in 
flues  through  which  the  heat  is  drawn;  the  principle  being  to  so 
hold  the  heat  and  to  so  distribute  it  as  to  equalize  it  throughout  the 
mass  of  brick  that  are  being  burned  within  one  chamber.  The  im- 
portant feature  of  this  construction  is  that  the  flue  space  shall  be 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

adequate  to  the  area  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  fire  shall  be  con- 
trolled. The  brick  are  set  or  piled  in  height  according  to  what  the 
clay  will  endure,  and  the  manner  of  setting  is  again  controlled  by 
the  nature  of  the  clay  forming  the  brick.  Again  do  I  hold  that  each 
separate  clay  must  be  understood  before  suitable  kilns  in  all  their 
details  can  be  built  for  its  successful  burning,  which  in  its  essential 
feature  is  the  draft  area  and  the  application  thereof.  During  the 
burning  of  the  brick,  the  mechanical  water  not  eliminated  in  the 
driers  is  now  driven  off,  and  this,  in  turn,  is  followed  by  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  water  held  in  bond  in  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  clay  in  its  original  state ;  and  here  is  where  the  final  shrinkage 
of  the  brick  in  the  interlacing  and  knitting  of  the  clay  particles 
takes  place,  and  it  is  here  where  clays  of  excessive  shrinkage,  or 
where  mixed  clays  of  uneven  shrinkage,  or  where  impure  clays 
come  to  grief,  or  leave  their  damaging  effects  within  the  finished 
product.  It  is  here,  also,  that  the  stability  of  the  clay  is  tested  in 
the  matter  of  initial  vitrification  and  melting.  It  is  imperative  that 
a  clay  have  a  fair  range  of  heat  in  this  respect;  for,  if  this  margin 
is  limited  to  a  narrow  basis,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  bring  about 
uniform  or  satisfactory  results  in  the  final  firing.  By  ingenious  and 
thoroughly  practical  devices  now  in  use  in  modern  brick  plants,  the 
elimination  of  the  water  by  absorption,  and  the  water  in  bond,  is 
noted  during  the  progress  of  burning.  The  degree  of  heat  in  all 
important  portions  of  the  kiln  is  also  recorded  constantly,  from  the 
light  firing  as  an  initial  burning  to  the  point  of  vitrification,  and  the 
measure  of  shrinkage  that  the  brick  is  undergoing  during  the  firing 
is  carefully  noted ;  these  combined  observations  being  a  safe  guide 
to  the  operator  in  charge.  The  word  of  caution  that  may  here  be 
spoken,  with  the  ever-present  varying  conditions  of  clays  and  what 
they  will  endure,  is :  Do  not  force  the  firing  beyond  what  the  clay 
being  burned  will  stand  with  safety;  for,  if  you  do,  the' opened  kiln 
will  not  defend  your  action. 

We  now  come  to  the  final  act  in  the  manufacture  of  vitrified 
brick;  i.  e.,  the  cooling  of  the  semi-molten  mass.  Here  to  be  safe, 
to  get  the  best  product,  the  manufacturer  must  set  aside  the  desire 
for  gain,  must  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  clamor  of  contractor,  engineer, 
or  layman,  who  may  be  crowding  him,  and  let  nature  take  her 
course ;  for,  as  it  is  imperative  during  the  burning  to  let  the  heat 
soak  into  and  through  the  brick  naturally,  and  not  under  forced 
draft,  so  must  this  heat  be  permitted  again  to  pass  away.  It  is  now 
that  the  work  of  making  structure  is  taking  place,  and  the  mass 
is  being  annealed  and  toughened;  and  if  this  is  checked  in  the 
slightest  degree  by  too  sudden  cooling  a  weakened  and  imperfect, 
or  a  brittle,  product  will  be  the  result,  but  if  permitted  to  work  out 
under  natural  laws,  with  every  condition  present  for  the  good,  a 
product  will  come  forth,  as  comes  in  many  places  and  in  ever-in- 
creasing numbers,  that  is  not  excelled — no,  not  even  in  the  mighty 
workshops  of  nature. 

"How  may  a  man  tell  a  good  vitrified  brick  when  he  sees  it?"  is  ?> 
question  that  was  asked  me  in  connection  with  this  subject-matter,  and 
I  am  pleased  to  answer  in  this  way : 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  115 

Establish  what  is  the  average  size  of  a  satisfactorily  burned 
vitrified  brick,  made  from  any  given  clay ;  for  all  uniformly  made 
brick,  of  uniform  clay,  uniformly  burned,  must  be  practically  of 
uniform  size  when  finished. 

Test  by  absorption. 

Establish  a  machine  or  device  that  shall  hold  the  brick  in  place 
as  they  are  in  service,  and  test  by  impact  and  abrasion  as  under 
traffic. 

Then  put  a  hammer  into  the  hands  of  a  practical  inspector,  who 
holds  his  situation  by  reason  of  his  knowledge  of  the  thing  you 
want  him  to  pass  judgment  upon,  and  let  this  hammer,  by  test  of 
sound  and  by  the  fracture  of  the  brick,  determine  the  quality,  as 
can  very  easily  be  done  when  once  the  grade  of  any  defined  ma- 
terial is  established ;  and  this  quality  lies  entirely  in  the  brick  struc- 
ture, and  is  not  governed  or  may  not  be  determined  by  simple 
shades  of  color,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  any  clay  that  will 
vitrify  cannot  be  burned  to  an  absolute  shade  in  color,  unless  the 
degrees  of  heat  are  practically  identical  throughout  the  entire  kiln 
area,  which  has  never  been  possible,  as  measured  from  top  to  bot- 
tom of  the  kiln,  even  in  the  burning  of  the  highest  grades  of  face 
brick,  where  uniformity  of  color  or  shade  is  much  desired.  I  said 
above :  "Test  by  absorption."  But  this  must  have  its  limitations, 
for  vitrified  brick  will  vary  in  the  percentages  of  absorption  from 
nil  to  various  quantitative  proportions,  according  to  the  degrees 
of  heat  to  which  they  have  been  subjected  in  their  relative  position 
in  the  kiln  during  the  burning,  which  is  but  a  natural  result  of  the 
absolutely  essential  element  in  clay  of  heat  range  between  the  point 
of  initial  vitrification  and  fluxing.  The  matter  of  absorption,  the 
limitation  to  which  it  may  be  extended,  here  becomes  an  open  book, 
and  can  readily  be  determined  as  a  safe  guide  in  tests  and  to  guard 
against  overburned  brick.  The  hammer  in  the  hands  of  a  compe- 
tent man  is  ever  sufficient. 

Finally,  gentlemen,  we  have  in  a  vitrified  brick,  as  I  have  en- 
deavored to  describe,  a  material  that  in  structure  and  enduring 
qualities  is  not  surpassed  by  any  known  material ;  for  it  is  not  af- 
fected by  heat  or  cold,  is  not  amenable  to  the  deteriorating  in- 
fluences of  the  elements,  and  is  as  lasting  as  is  the  lava  that  was 
emitted  from  the  crater's  mouth  and  has  endured  for  centuries,  and 
which  has  given  us  our  first  lesson  in  vitrification  at  the  hands  of 
the  Great  Creator,  and,  furthermore,  have  we  our  lesson  from  Him 
in  the  matter  of  the  necessity  of  using  a  clay  that  has  by  nature 
been  refined,  for 

The  Lord  in  His  wisdom  showed  us  the  way, 
For  He  made  Adam  from  virgin  clay, 
But  when  He  beheld  the  Figure  Nude, 
He  said,  "  "Tis  well,  but  still  quite  crude." 
So  from  this  mold  of  earthy  clay, 
Now  freed  from  dross  on  this  Hallowed  day, 
He  took  a  rib,  no  longer  mud, 
But  now  infused  with  mineral  blood, 
And  lo!  behold  what  this  pure  clay  did  make; 
'Tis  said  one,  and  only  one,  for  each  man  to  take. 
M.R.B.— 9 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  I  make  a  motion  that  the  Congress  do  now 
adjourn  and  walk  out  and  see  this  brick  put  in  place  on  our  piece 
of  experimental  road.  You  will  all  be  interested  I  am  sure  to  see 
this  vitrified  brick. 

On  the  return  of  the  delegates  to  the  Good  Roads  building,  Mr. 
F.  N.  Godfrey,  of  New  York,  read  a  letter  from  Mr.  James  H.  Mac- 
Donald,  Chairman  of  the  Highway  Committee  of  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut and  President  of  the  Road  Makers'  Association  of  that 
State. 

Mr.  Godfrey  said :  I  have  here  a  letter  from  my  personal  friend 
Mr.  MacDonald,  which  perhaps  it  was  not  intended  that  I  should 
read ;  but  I  feel  it  is  almost  too  good  to  keep,  showing  his  sym- 
pathy with  the  work  of  this  Congress. 

MR.  MACDONAI,D'S  LETTER. 

Mr.  F.  N.  Godfrey, 

c/o  Samuel  Hill, 

Seattle,  Wash. 

My  Dear  Mr.  Godfrey: 

It  is  with  sincere  regret  that  I  shake  hands  with  you  across  the 
continent,  when  I  expected  to  stand  with  you  and  enjoy  the 
pleasant  occasion  together;  but  the  Legislature,  which  is  still  in 
session  and  is  liable  to  be  for  some  time  to  come,  has  delayed  action  on 
my  good  roads  matters  to  the  extent  that  it  is  impossible  for  me  to 
leave  the  ship  at  this  time. 

The  entire  future  of  the  good  roads  movement  depends  on  my 
staying  very  close  to  the  laws  I  have  presented  for  consideration 
by  the  committee  until  they  have  reached -a  safe  harbor.  I  do  not 
think  I  will  grow  less  in  your  estimation  by  taking  this  course. 
My  first  duty  is  to  the  work  of  my  department,  for  the  reason  that 
future  generations'  comfort,  happiness,  convenience,  and  prosperity 
depend  very  largely  on  the  good  roads  law  being  adopted  along 
those  lines  that  will  make  for  progress  and  be  permanent  in  their 
character.  So  many  years  of  hard  work — fourteen  years  in  July — 
demand  that  at  this  critical  time  I  should  not  absent  myself  one 
moment  from  careful  oversight  of  these  bills,  so  that  they  will  come 
from  the  committee  and  go  through  the  Senate  and  the  House  as 
I  have  recommended. 

As  much  as  I  regret  my  inability  to  unload  the  duties  of  my  of- 
fice for  three  weeks,  I  cannot,  in  justice  to  the  future  of  this  move- 
ment, absent  myself  and  neglect  my  state  work  for  my  own  per- 
sonal pleasure. 

My  heart  lies  very  close  to  Mr.  Samuel  Hill  in  his  splendid  work 
for  the  reclamation  of  the  roads  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  I  would 
go  a  great  many  thousand  miles  to  hold  up  his  banner — yes,  even 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  117 

to  carry  one  of  its  tassels — to  assist  him  in  the  laudable  purposes 
he  is  engaged  in. 

I  have  written  him  a  letter,  without  going  quite  so  much  into 
detail  as  with  you,  simply  relating  the  facts  and  relying  on  the 
strong  bond  of  friendship  that  has  existed  between  him  and  me.  I 
hope  you  will  not  feel  disappointed  at  my  absenting  myself  from 
this  convention  and  being  present  with  you  personally  in  its  delib- 
erations. 

I  trust  you  and  I  may  meet  on  some  similar  occasion.  I  have 
in  mind  holding  a  convention  on  the  part  of  our  association  later 
in  the  season,  at  which  time  I  hope  to  have  you  speak,  as  a  little 
softening  of  the  blow  at  not  being  able  to  be  with  you  on  the  Pa- 
cific Coast.  It  is  a  hard  matter,  Brother  Godfrey,  to  tie  myself 
down  here  just  at  this  time,  when  I  want  to  be  with  you ;  but  my 
official  work  is  such  that  I  cannot  leave  it. 

I  am  writing  you  this  letter,  so  that  it  may  reach  you  at  the  time 
you  are  holding  the  convention,  and  thus  know  that  the  State  High- 
way Commissioner  of  Connecticut  is  present  in  the  spirit,  although 
absent  in  the  body. 

Very  sincerely  your  friend,  JAMES  H.  MAcDoNAU). 

Mr.  Lawrence:  There  were  a  number  of  questions  asked  of  Mr. 
R.  H.  Thomson  concerning  the  laying  of  the  vitrified  brick,  and  at 
the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Lancaster  he  is  requested  to  repeat  his  state- 
ments at  this  time,  so  that  they  may  appear  in  the  record  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  hereafter  may  have  the  pleasure  of  reading  the 
proceedings  of  this  Congress. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  I  was  asked  a  great  many  questions,  while 
we  were  down  looking  at  the  sample  roadways,  about  methods  of 
construction  and  cost  of  construction.  I  presume  that  each  one  of 
you  will  recognize  that  neither  the  same  method  of  construction  can 
be  used  in  every  place  nor  will  the  same  cost  of  construction  pre- 
vail, because  of  differences  in  the  hours  of  labor  and  the  cost  of 
labor  and  material. 

We  use  four  different  classes  of  paving  in  Seattle.  The  first  is 
stone  block  pavement,  which  is  of  two  kinds,  granite  and  sandstone. 
We  have  some  granite  block  pavement  laid  where  there  is  very 
heavy  traffic  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  freight  yards.  It  gives 
only  a  fair  foothold,  and  has  a  tendency  to  become  quite  noisy,  and 
because  of  the  extreme  noise  we  do  not  consider  it  adapted  to  any 
street  on  which  there  is  any  considerable  trading  being  carried  on, 
especially  retail  trading.  That  pavement,  however,  costs  us  about 
fifty  cents  a  square  foot  for  the  finished  roadway,  taking  into  con- 


118  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

sideration  the  cost  of  excavation  and  the  cost  of  the  curbs  alongside 
of  the  street.  It  is  often  a  good  thing  to  know  about  what  the  cost 
of  the  finished  roadway  will  be,  taking  into  consideration  every- 
thing, and  not  taking  what  you  would  call  "pot  luck."  When  going 
into  the  construction  of  a  piece  of  granite  block  pavement  in  the 
streets  in  Seattle,  we  include  the  removing  of  the  subgrade  and  the 
relaying  and  the  laying  down  of  drain  tile ;  for  we  consider  that 
without  a  solid  foundation  the  paving  is  worthless.  We  drain  out, 
and  put  in  gravel,  and  take  the  drainage  into  catch-basins.  Includ- 
ing a  six-inch  concrete  base,  sand  cushion,  cut  stone  topping,  and 
granite  curbs,  and  all  incidentals,  the  average  cost  of  a  square  foot  of 
granite  pavement  is  fifty  cents. 

On  steep  hills,  to  give  a  better  foothold  to  the  horses,  so  that  the 
horse's  shoe  will  have  a  grip,  we  are  using  sandstone.  We  do  not 
expect  it  to  last  very  long,  but  it  is  a  question  of  absolute  economy. 
We  figure  with  pencil  and  pad  as  to  which  is  cheaper — to  allow  the 
teams  to  only  haul  3,000  pounds  as  a  load  for  a  team  on  asphalt  or 
brick,  or  to  put  on  a  rough,  gritty  surface,  and  allow  them  to  haul 
5,000  or  6,000  pounds.  When  you  can  practically  double  the  load 
by  putting  in  the  pavement  which  will  give  the  better  foothold,  it 
is  more  economical  to  the  citize'n  to  put  sandstone  than  granite, 
brick,  or  asphalt,  because  there  is  the  better  foothold,  and  the  teams 
can  carry  greater  loads.  We  would  not  recommend  this  for  trot- 
ting traffic,  because  it  is  this  trotting  traffic  that  destroys  pavement 
of  any  kind.  Walking  traffic  does  not  destroy  practically  any  pave- 
ment. Take  a  heavy  horse,  and  as  he  walks  he  shuffles ;  but  when 
you  get  a  trotting  horse,  and  he  begins  to  go  over  the  street,  and 
lifts  his  foot,  and  comes  down,  and  cuts  it,  and  digs  into  the  pave- 
ment, if  it  is  sandstone,  he  hollows  it  out  and  destroys  it,  and  trot- 
ting traffic  is  the  traffic  which  is  so  destructive.  Walking  traffic 
will  do  very  little  destruction  to  any  good  pavement. 

The  second  class,  vitrified  brick,  is  what  you  saw  on  the  roadway. 
This  piece  of  roadway  we  hope  will  be  part  of  a  general  boulevard 
to  be  carried  through  the  University  ground  around  the  shore  of 
the  Lake,  and  we  hope  to  put  in  samples  of  every  class  of  pavement 
that  we  are  laying  for  the  study  of  the  Good  Roads  and  Engineer- 
ing Department  of  the  State  University,  so  that  we  can  make  an 
actual,  unprejudiced,  and  scientific  study  of  the  cash  value  of  all  the 
different  sorts  of  pavements.  That  is  why  you  see  the  brick,  wood 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  119 

block,  and  asphalt,  and  if  Mr.  Hooley  has  brought  samples,  and  if 
Prof.  Richardson  has  brought  a  big  enough  box  of  asphalt  macadam 
we  will  lay  it.  We  want  to  get  samples  of  a  reasonable  length  of 
every  class  of  pavement  we  can  put  in. 

We  are  laying  this  brick  with  a  six-inch  concrete  foundation,  and 
on  that,  unless  it  is  laid  on  gravel,  or  a  porous  soil,  we  place  gravel, 
and  put  in  drain  tile,  and  carry  this  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  or 
three  hundred  feet,  so  that  the  subsoil  may  be  absolutely  dry.  We 
put  on  the  six-inch  concrete  foundation  after  the  subsoil  has  been 
rolled  with  a  fourteen-ton  roller,  and  we  roll  it  down  until  the  roller 
has  absolutely  got  tired.  Then  we  put  a  sand  cushion,  about  one 
and  a  half  inches  of  good  clean  sand,  and  then  the  brick  are  laid,  as 
you  saw  them  there ;  and  as  a  rule  we  put  a  one-inch  plank  over 
the  section,  and  put  on  the  fourteen-ton  roller,  and  roll  the  street, 
pressing  the  brick  into  the  sand  under  the  plank,  and  when  we  get 
through  we  have  an  almost  uniform  surface,  and  the  sand  has  been 
pressed  down  from  one  and  a  half  inches  until  it  is  only  about  three- 
quarters  or  one  inch,  and  the  crevices  we  fill  in  different  ways  on 
different  streets,  according  to  the  desire  or  fad  of  the  abutting  own-' 
ers.  Personally  I  believe  that  hot  sand  filler  is  as  effective  as  any- 
thing that  can  be  used.  We  take  the  fine,  sharp  sand,  and  heat  it 
very  hot,  and  then  spread  it  on  the  pavement,  and  sweep  it  into  the 
crevices,  and  it  runs.  You  have  heard  how  hot  molasses  will  run ;* 
hot  sand  will  run  just  as  well.  It  binds  the  brick  together,  so  that 
to  lift  the  brick  out  we  have  been  compelled  to  take  a  hammer  and 
break  the  brick  to  make  an  opening,  and  have  had  to  use  a  hammer 
and  cold  chisel  to  get  in.  It  becomes  so  dense  that  it  is  impervious 
to  water,  because  we  wash  every  night  with  a  hose,  or  rather  we  did 
for  years,  streets  with  the  sand  filler  only.  W^e  put  the  hose  on  a 
hydrant  with  eighty  pounds  pressure  and  the  sand  filler  remained. 
That  applies  particularly  to  Second  Avenue  from  Pike  Street  to 
Yesler  Way.  This  we  laid  in  1896,  and  there  is  one  half  block  of 
street  in  front  of  Frederick  &  Nelson's  store  on  the  west  side  of  the 
street  which  has  had  no  disturbance  from  that  time  to  this.  You 
can  see  this  half  block  which  has  been  undisturbed  for  years,  and 
that  will  give  you  the  best  idea  of  a  vitrified  brick  pavement  with 
sand  filler.  Taking  that  kind  of  pavement,  which  costs  us,  includ- 
ing all  incidentals,  such  as  catch-basins,  six-inch  concrete  base,  and 
all  the  other  paraphernalia,  forty  cents  per  square  foot,  our  ,con- 


120  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

tract  price  has  been  $2.45  or  $2.65  per  yard ;  but,  when  you  add  all 
the  other  things  that  go  with  it,  excavation,  drain,  catch-basin, 
curbs,  etc.,  it  runs  up  to  forty  cents  per  square  foot. 

We  will  now  take  our  asphalt  pavement,  principally  in  the  resi- 
dential districts.  There  it  is  our  purpose  to  give  roadways  twenty- 
five  feet  wide,  nicely  crowned,  about  four  or  four  and  a  half  inches 
in  twenty-five  feet,  with  concrete  curbs,  and  four  to  four  and  a  half 
concrete  base  with  subdrains — because  we  subdrain  the  asphalt  the 
same  as  anything  else — and  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  of  binder 
gravel  coated  with  liquid  asphalt  laid  on  top  of  the  base,  and 
between  that  and  the  one  and  a  half  inch  wearing  surface ;  and  the 
wearing  surface,  the  average  cost,  taking  everything  into  considera- 
tion, has  been  thirty-two  cents  per  square  foot.  Recently  we  have 
been  getting  some  contracts  as  low  as  $1.60  to  $1.75  per  square  yard, 
which  gives  the  appearance  of  a  much  less  price ;  but  to  this  price 
there  must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  earth  excavation,  the  subdrains, 
catch-basins  and  curbs,  and  I  have  no  doubt  every  one  wants  to 
know  what  this  costs  for  the  finished  street.  That  was  taking  an 
average  price  running  over  twelve  or  fourteen  years.  The  granite 
and  sandstone  costs  us  practically  fifty  cents  for  the  finished  street, 
everything  made  and  laid ;  the  vitrified  brick,  forty  cents ;  and  the 
asphalt  between  thirty-two  and  thirty-three  cents — being  in  each 
case  for  the  finished  street.  If  you  take  these  figures  and  bear  them 
in  mind,  you  will  not  be  deceived  by  hearing  the  cheap  figures  as  to 
cost  per  square  yard  and  claiming  that  it  costs  more  than  it  should. 
It  costs  about  thirty-two  cents  per  square  foot  for  the  best  asphalt. 

As  to  the  wearing  qualities  of  asphalt,  the  first  street  was  con- 
structed seven  years  ago  on  Ninth  Avenue  from  Madison  Street 
south.  That  street  to-day  for  nearly  half  a  mile  looks  as  well  as  if 
it  had  only  been  laid  two  or  three  weeks  ago.  It  was  laid  of  the 
best  tested  Alcatraz  asphalt  from  California.  There  are  two  streets 
in  the  city  laid  of  asphalt  which  never  were  successful.  The  asphalt 
burnt  before  it  was  laid  down,  and  they  are  still  being  repaired. 
They  are  the  north  part  of  First  Avenue  and  a  considerable  portion 
of  Broadway. 

On  Capitol  Hill  we  have  one  of  the  streets  of  the  city  which  has 
not  yet  been  accepted.  The  majority  of  the  streets  of  Capitol  Hill 
have  been  laid  about  five  years.  They  are  between  25  and  32  feet  in 
width  between  curbs,  and  have  cost  an  average  of  thirty-two  cents 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  121 

per  square  foot  complete,  laid  on  a  concrete  base,  with  subdrainage, 
and  with  the  exception  of  Broadway,  which,  as  I  say,  we  are  still 
working  on  after  four  or  five  years,  some  of  the  asphalt  having  been 
injured  in  the  original  refining,  and  there  not  having  been  quite 
enough  asphalt  put  into  the  mixture,  with  that  exception,  friends  of 
mine  have  offered  a  dollar  for  any  crack  that  could  be  found  in  the 
whole  territory,  and  no  one  has  yet  earned  the  dollar. 

We  have  been  remarkably  successful  with  our  asphalt  pavement, 
largely  through  the  co-operation  of  one  of  the  gentlemen  who  is 
going  to  present  a  paper  here  to-day,  Prof.  Clifford  Richardson. 

Mr.  Campbell :  Do  I  understand  that  the  pavement  is  all  laid  by 
contract  under  city  inspection? 

Mr.  Thomson :  We  inspect  everything,  and  the  asphalt  is  tested 
continually  in  our  laboratory  under  standard  specification. 

Judge.  Hanford:  Is  there  not  a  part  of  Capitol  Hill  where  the 
asphalt  was  laid  by  private  owner  ? 

Mr.  Thomson :  There  is  a  portion  of  the  district  known  as  Cap- 
itol Hill  where  what  appears  to  be  asphalt  pavement  was  laid  down 
by  a  landowner  prior  to  the  sale  of  his  plat.  Permission  was  given 
for  the  landowner  to  make  his  own  improvements;  but  he  bought 
what  is  known  as  bituminous  rock,  which  is  sand  into  which  has  fil- 
tered asphalt.  This  was  brought  here  from  California,  and  is  fre- 
quently mistaken  for  the  real  asphalt  pavement.  There  is  a  good  deal 
of  complaint  about  the  bad  appearance  of  this  bituminous  rock  pave- 
ment in  the  Capitol  Hill  district.  I  know  them  so  well,  and  always  pass 
round  the  corner,  so  as  not  to  see  them,  and  for  that  reason  I  never 
think  of  them  as  being  part  of  the  city's  work.  They  show  the  dan- 
ger of  allowing  a  private  landowner  the  privilege  of  pretending  to  im- 
prove his  property  before  he  sells  it.  He  charges  about  twice  the  price 
it  would  have  cost  for  the  city  to  have  done  the  work  by  reason  of  the 
pretended  improvement,  and  as  a  rule  the  citizens  who  purchase  get 
about  a  quarter  of  the  actual  value.  These  supposed  improvements  are 
a  positive  injury  as  a  rule,  and  disgrace  the  profession  of  road  making. 

Mr.  Campbell:  Do  you  lay  the  asphalt  up  to  and  between  the 
rails  of  the  street  railway? 

Mr.  Thomson:  We  lay  none  of  the  pavement  further  than  one 
and  a  half  feet  of  the  outer  rail  of  the  railway.  We  put  it  up  to  the 


122  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

street  railway  company  to  lay  that  one  and  a  half  feet,  and  to  lay 
between  the  tracks,  and  to  maintain  it.  As  3.  rule  they  use  headers, 
toothing  out  from  the  rail  on  the  outside,  and  they  fill  in  from  our 
pavement  to  within  and  between  those  headers,  mostly  brick.  At 
the  present  time  they  lay  two  or  three  rows  of  brick  parallel  with 
the  rail,  and  they  are  thus  able  to  lift  them  and  tighten  the  joints 
without  destroying  the  asphalt  pavement,  and  to  drop  the  brick  in 
position,  using  the  hot  asphalt  or  whatever  they  may  use. 

Mr.  Campbell:    Do  you  allow  them  to  use  their  own  material? 

Mr.  Thomson:  The  franchise  says  they  shall  use  the  same  mate- 
rial; but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  put  the  same  material  up 
against  the  rail  that  you  put  in  the  middle  of  the  street.  For 
instance,  in  some  of  the  cable  roads,  we  have  been  compelled  to 
permit  them  to  use  a  thin  granite  block,  and  to  crowd  that  in  be- 
tween the  rails,  because,  unless  we  destroyed  the  entire  track,  their 
construction  would  not  permit  the  use  of  our  material.  In  passing 
over  the  steel  rail,  if  the  asphalt  were  immediately  adjacent,  the  ten- 
dency would  be  to  plowr  it  out  by  passing  from  the  harder  to  the 
softer  texture,  and  we  permit  them  to  put  these  headers  of  brick 
right  along  the  rail,  and  frequently  to  pave  within  the  track  with 
brick  entirely,  because  it  gives  practically  the  same  foothold. 

An  Inquirer:  Can  you  recollect  what  material  is  at  the  junction 
of  Broadway  and  Madison? 

Mr.  Thomson:  That  is  a  part  of  the  asphalt  that  was  put  in  some 
five  or  six  years  ago,  of  which  we  have  been  complaining.  It  is  not 
a  bituminous  rock,  but  it  is  an  artificial  asphalt.  I  think  the  worst- 
looking  intersection  on  the  whole  street  is  Columbia  and  Broadway ; 
but  the  whole  street  is  defective  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The 
asphalt  had  been  burned.  It  is  the  residuum  of  the  distillation  of 
crude  petroleum,  and  there  is  very  considerable  free  carbon  in  the 
mass,  which  tends  to  its  destruction.  We  have  laid  brick  gutter 
and  asphalt  gutter,  and  I  am  not  quite  sure  whether  the  asphalt 
gutter  is  as  good  as  the  brick. 

An  Inquirer:    Do  you  continue  the  asphalt  to  the  curb? 

Mr.  Thomson:  Yes;  we  are  practically  coming  to  that,  as  I  be- 
lieve it  makes  a  more  symmetrical  and  an  equally  valuable  street 
as  when  we  put  the  cut  stone  along  the  curb.  We  originally  fol- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  123 

lowed  the  English  practice  of  laying  cut  stone  or  brick  along  the 
curb. 

Mr.  Campbell:  We  find  the  sheet  asphalt  cracks,  splits,  and 
opens  out.  I  do  not  notice  that  here.  Can  you  account  for  it? 

Mr.  Richardson:  I  am  very  familiar  with  Toronto,  ai>d  I  will 
explain  this  when  Mr.  Thomson  is  through. 

Mr.  Campbell:  I  would  like  to  ask  what  woods  you  have  been 
experimenting  with  in  your  wood  block  pavement 

Mr.  Thomson:  Cedar  .and  Douglas  fir.  We  have  found  wood 
block  paving  in  our  climate  has  been  unsatisfactory  in  two  respects : 
First,  it  was  creosoted  sufficiently  to  be  quite  antiseptic,  and  was  very 
slippery  on  our  grades,  so  that  the  horses  could  not  stand,  unless  the 
street  was  kept  sprinkled  with  grits ;  and  I  find  that  true  of  every 
road  of  wood  block  that  I  have  investigated  anywhere  in  the  world. 
I  spent  some  time  in  London  and  in  Westminster,  where  they  use  a 
wood,  which  is  not  very  different  from  our  Douglas  fir,  and  it  costs 
them  $1,000  a  year  simply  to  place  in  boxes  alongside  the  street  the 
quantity  of  grits  necessary  for  the  street  men  to  have  in  their  hands 
to  spread  upon  the  street  surface  to  prevent  the  horses  slipping.  It 
costs  them  this  amount  for  every  mile  of  road.  Then  again  the 
wood  block  varies  so  in  texture  that  they  will  make  ruts  and  depres- 
sions, and  then  again  the  wood  pavement  becomes  very  offensive 
under  heavy  loads.  It  is  necessary  to  wash  and  sweep  the  wood 
pavement,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  block  holds  the  water,  and 
when  a  heavy  team  goes  over  it  that  water  sprays  out  of  the  side, 
and  the  dirty  spray  will  dirt  everything  alongside.  You  cannot  pre- 
vent it  in  the  nature  of  things,  so  in  our  climate,  with  our  moisture, 
and  with  our  hills,  we  have  not  favored  the  wood  block  pavement. 
We  make  no  objections  to  its  use  by  those  whom  it  suits.  We  know 
that  in  European  countries,  for  instance,  in  the  city  of  Paris,  they  do 
not  expect  a  wood  block  pavement  to  last  more  than  three  and  a 
half  years ;  but  they  say  they  can  afford  to  put  it  in  because  of  the 
quiet  which  it  affords  to  the  shopkeepers  on  the  side  of  the  street.  A 
shopkeeper  told  me  in  Paris  that  they  once  had  stone  pavement,  and  you 
could  not  hear  yourself  think,  let  alone  speak,  and  it  was  impossible 
to  carry  on  any  trade.  If  a  lady  wanted  to  buy  some  laces,  for 
example,  the  shop  girl  who  was  was  showing  her  the  things  on  the 
counter  would  have  to  make  a  megaphone  by  putting  her  hands  to 


124  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

her  mouth  and  crying  out  to  her  the  price,  and  if  she  started  to  make 
a  special  rate,  just  as  she  was  calling  out,  "I  will  make  you  such 
and  such  a  rate,"  there  would  be  a  difference  in  the  noise  in  the 
room,  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  some  wagon  or  vehicle  had 
stopped,  and  all  through  the  room  it  would  come  like  a  trumpet 
blast  the  special  rate  that  she  was  making.  To  get  that  quiet  and  to 
avoid  annoyance  they  put  in  a  wood  block  pavement,  and  they  say 
that  it  pays  in  quiet  and  increased  rentals.  They  can  take  it  away 
every  three  and  a  half  years,  but  they  have  to  sprinkle  it  with  grit 
or  sand  every  morning. 

Mr.  Campbell:  Under  the  conditions  you  describe,  you  think 
wooden  pavements  might  be  satisfactory? 

Mr.  Thomson :  It  is  certainly  very  dirty.  I  do  not  know  of  any 
more  offensive  place  than  some  of  the  streets  in  London  where 
wood  block  paving  is  used,  nor  a  harder  place  for  horses  to  travel 
than  where  hardwood  is  used.  It  would  have  to  be  covered  with 
grits  all  the  time,  and  is  very  expensive. 

Mr.  Campbell:  Do  you  use  these  subdrains  on  the  top  of  these 
ridges,  where  you  have  no  higher  ground  around?  Is  it  necessary 
to  use  subdrains  in  those  cases? 

Mr.  Thomson :  Where  there  is  no  higher  ground,  we  do  not  use 
a  subdrain;  but  there  are  very  few  places  in  Seattle  where  there  is 
not  h'igher  ground.  On  some  of  the  level  streets  of  Capitol  Hill,  we 
have  found  it  necessary  to  lay  subdrains,  even  though  the  ground 
appeared  to  be  very  little  higher.  There  are  some  of  the  streets  on 
the  hillside  wheVe  we  have  not  laid  them,  because  there  is  some 
eight  or  ten  feet  of  open  gravel  underneath  the  roadway,  in  which  it 
is  never  possible^  to  find  water;  but,  wherever  we  encounter  clay 
or  hardpan  and  the  least  bit  of  higher  ground,  we  put  in  gravel,  and 
tile  drain,  and  carry  it  off  into  catch-basins.  When  this  was  first 
done,  a  great  many  people  laughed  at  me,  and  said  it  was  ridiculous 
to  think  that  water  would  pass  under  granite  curbs  and  get  under 
the  roadway,  and  I  appointed  one  of  my  assistants,  Mr.  Scott,  to 
go  out  during  heavy  storms,  and  immediately  after,  and  take  off  the 
covers  of  the  catch-basins  in  places  where  there  was  supposed  to  be 
no  water  whatever,  and  to  see  if  any  water  was  coming  into  the 
catch-basins,  and  in  nearly  every  case  a  considerable  stream  of  wa- 
ter was  coming  through  the  drain  tiles.  Only  in  a  few  cases  out 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  125 

of  a  hundred  did  he  find  that  there  was  no  water  coming  through 
the  drain  tiles,  so  my  belief  in  the  necessity  of  tiling  was  fully  sub- 
stantiated by  the  result. 

Mr.  Campbell:  Have  you  noticed  any  difficulty  with  the  buck- 
ling of  the  wood  blocks?  « 

Mr.  Thomson:  Our  wood  block  never  buckled,  for  the  reason 
that,  before  we  laid  the  blocks,  we  put  a  piece  of  plank,  a  little 
more  than  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  bottom  and  about  one  and 
three-quarter  inches  at  the  top,  against  the  curb  on  both  sides,  and 
we  laid  the  blocks  against  the  plank.  As  soon  as  the  blocks  were 
laid,  the  plank  was  removed,  and  that  crevice  was  filled  with  clay. 
When  the  block  expands,  that  clay  is  simply  raised  alongside  the 
curb,  taking  up  the  expansion ;  otherwise,  our  blocks  would  have 
buckled. 

An  Inquirer:  In  Regina  we  fill  the  spaces  with  tar,  leaving  one 
inch  space,  and  that  squeezed  out,  and  this  year  they  took  up  nearly 
the  whole  pavement,  and  left  two  inches  space,  and  that  is  raised 
up. 

Mr.  Thomson:    What  kind  of  wood  did  you  use? 
A  British  Columbia  fir.    I  am  not  in  charge  of  it ;  but  I  have  no- 
ticed it.     That  is  all. 

Mr.  Richardson:  It  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  saturation 
in  the  block.  In  New  York  we  have  no  expansion ;  but  we  only 
put  in  sixteen  pounds,  because  that  gives  an  opportunity  for  some 
expansion.  If  you  put  in  only  eight  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  you 
have  to  have  still  larger  expansion. 

Mr.  Thomson:  It  is  a  good  plan  to  soak  the  blocks.  I  think  we 
have  had  our  last  block  pavement.  We  have  no  complaint  against 
them  where  it  is  a  necessity  for  retail  shops,  and  where  people  are 
willing  to  pay  any  price  for  quiet.  Those  who  desire  them  are 
welcome  to  them  all  over  the  world,  and  we  have  plenty  of  wood 
yet  to  sell,  and  the  more  they  want  the  higher  will  be  the  price  on 
the  timber,  so  I  don't  want  to  say  too  much  against  block  paving. 

Mr.  Richardson:     What  do  they  cost? 

Mr.  Thomson:  A  little  more  than  brick.  If  brick  costs  forty 
cents  per  square  foot,  wood  block  will  cost  about  forty-two  and  a 
half  cents. 


126  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Mr.  Richardson:  Is  not  the  question  of  paving  in  Seattle  a 
simpler  matter  than  in  Chicago  or  Detroit,  where  the  variation  of 
temperature  is  so  much  more? 

Mr.  Thomson :  I  think  it  is ;  but,  as  it  relates  to  asphalt,  we  are 
passing  all  these  matters  up  to  Prof.  Richardson.  He  comes  here 
charged  with  the  responsibility  of  defending  asphalt,  and  says  he 
will  be  good-natured,  whatever  happens.  It  is  much  more  difficult 
to  maintain  pavements  of  any  kind  in  a  climate  of  great  extremes, 
and  I  think  that  Chicago  and  Toronto  and  Winnipeg  have  consid- 
erable extremes  in  temperature. 

Mr.  Richardson:  I  have  found  Omaha  and  St.  Paul  to  be  very 
difficult  cities. 

Mr.  Thomson:  Omaha  is,  because  of  the  clayey  character  of  the 
ground.  The  frost  in  Omaha  clay  seems  to  go  as  far  down  as  a 
man  can  dig,  and  the  frost  seems  to  want  to  go  straight  down,  and 
the  clay  wants  to  come  right  up.  I  cannot  say  I  know  as  much 
about  St.  Paul.  In  conclusion,  I  would  say  that  as  a  filler  I  prefer 
hot  sand  to  any  other  filler  known.  When  Mr.  Little  was  Super- 
intendent of  Streets,  and  wanted  to  keep  Second  Avenue  clean,  he 
got  nozzles  and  put  hose  on  the  hydrants  on  Second  Avenue,  where 
there  was  eighty  pounds  pressure,  and  he  went  out  and  washed 
the  street  with  a  hose,  and  people  thought  the  street  would  be 
ruined.  I  quarreled  with  him  very  much ;  but  that  took  place 
eleven  years  ago,  and  the  street  looks  pretty  nearly  as  good  to- 
day as  it  did  then.  If  I  had  my  way,  I  would  use  the  sand  filler  ex- 
clusively. 

Prof.  Clifford  Richardson,  before  reading  his  paper  on  Asphalt 
Macadam  Roadways,  made  a  few  remarks  along  the  line  of  the 
previous  discussion.  He  said : 

It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  me  to  meet  you  all  here  to-day.  I  had 
not  intended  to  introduce  the  subject  of  sheet  asphalt  pavement  in 
my  remarks;  but,  since  our  visit  to  the  plat  in  the  grounds,  and 
the  discussion  of  the  matter  of  pavements  by  Mr.  Thomson,  and 
the  questions  asked,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  take  the  subject  up 
to  a  certain  extent. 

Modern  sheet  asphalt  pavement  is  the  development  of  more  than 
thirty  years'  experience.  It  was  first  laid  in  a  rule  of  thumb 
way  on  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  Washington,  from  the  Capitol  to 
the  Treasury,  and  was  so  successful  that  the  Commissioners  in 
charge  of  the  paving  in  the  city  of  Washington  rejected  all  other 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  127 

methods,  and  it  has  been  used  there  very  satisfactorily  ever  since. 
Up  to  1896  the  construction  was,  however,  purely  one  of  rule  of 
thumb.  A  certain  amount  of  sand  and  ground  limestone  and  as- 
phalt was  mixed  together  in  a  haphazard  way  and  laid  upon  the 
foundation,  whether  of  broken  stone,  or  concrete,  or  whatever  it 
might  be,  old  pavements,  or  old  granite  sets;  but  I  entered  upon 
the  study  of  the  thing  as  early  as  1887,  and  by  1896,  owing  to  the 
experience  which  I  had  had  in  laying  pavements  in  London,  Eng- 
land, and  one  or  two  other  Continental  cities,  I  found  that  that 
rule  of  thumb  method  would  not  meet  the  trying  conditions  found 
in  Continental  cities.  The  pavements  I  laid  in  Washington  and  in 
the  Kingsway  in  London  .in  1894  began  to  come  up  at  one  end  be- 
fore they  .were  finished  at  the  other,  owing  to  the  weather  and 
traffic.  During  the  course  of  the  next  two  or  three  years  we  had 
an  opportunity  of  continuing  our  experiments  and  working  out 
a  rational  system  of  construction  of  sheet  asphalt.  That  showed  us 
the  most  important  thing  in  sheet  asphalt  is  not  the  asphalt,  but 
the  sand;  and  it  is  not  alone  the  sand,  but  the  character  of  the 
sand,  the  relation  of  the  sizes  of  the  different  grains  to  each  other. 
Each  sand  has  a  different  capacity  for  carrying  asphalt.  In  the 
early  pavements  we  had  very  little  filler,  as  we  could  not  find  a 
sand  to  meet  the  moist  conditions  in  London  or  the  heavy  traffic, 
and  we  had  to  add  an  impalpable  powder;  'the  most  desirable  being 
Portland  cement.  Then  we  had  to  study  carefully  how"  much  as- 
phalt and  cement  material  this  combined  sand  and  filler  would 
carry. 

Mr.  Campbell  has  alleged  the  fact  that  the  pavements  of  Toronto 
cracked  badly,  and  that  is  the  case  in  a  large  number  of  instances/ 
and  that  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sand  in  Toronto  has  grains  of 
a  peculiar  surface.  Toronto's  sand  will  carry  but  eight  and  a  half 
per  cent,  of  bitumen.  I  have  had  mixtures  sent  from  there  this 
year  which  show  that  that,  is  the  dangerous  thing.  Sand  in  Seattle 
will  carry  from  twelve  to  thirteen  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  so  you 
see  what  a  local  question  it  is  to  know  how  to  handle  the  sands 
that  are  available.  A  week  or  two  ago  I  wrote  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  company  in  Toronto  that  he  must  find  a  sand  that 
will  carry  more  bitumen,  and  he  has  done  so,  until  it  now  carries 
nine  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  bitumen ;  but  he  cannot  get  the  amount 
that  you  have  in  Seattle. 

One  reason  why  the  pavement  is  so  satisfactory  in  Seattle  is  the 
sand.  It  is  a  perfect  sand  for  constructing  an  asphalt  pavement, 
and  will  carry  sufficient  bitumen  without  being  soft;  bitumen  be- 
ing present  in  excess  to  give  an  elastic  surface  of  a  lasting  prop- 
erty. Another  reason  why  yo'ur  pavements  are  so  satisfactory  is 
entirely  due  to  Mr.  Thomson.  He  puts  a  foundation  under  them 
which  sustains  them.  We  speak  of  asphalt  pavement  and  the 
weight  it  will  carry.  It  is  not  the  asphalt,  it  is  the  foundation,  that 
is  the  pavement.  The  asphalt  is  merely  the  wearing  surface ;  and, 
if  it  is  not  properly  supported,  the  best  asphalt  is  of  no  value  what- 
ever. 


128  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

In  New  York  we  have  some  most  disgraceful  asphalt  pavements. 
It  is  a  city  of  enormous  area,  the  amount  for  paving  is  small,  and 
they  are  obliged  to  spread  it  over  a  vast  area.  The  principal  rea- 
son of  this  is  that  they  do  not  put  in  proper  foundations,  but  lay  the 
asphalt  over  the  old  pavements  of  the  city,  with  the  result  that  it 
is  not  properly  supported. 

Mr.  Thomson  and  a  number  of  gentlemen  have  remarked  that 
there  was  pavement  laid  here  in  1904  which  has  not  been  entirely 
successful.  This  had  been  down  but  a  few  months  when  I  received 
a  telegram  saying  we  were  in  difficulties  and  to  come  here.  My  last 
visit  here  was  for  .the  purpose  of  studying  the  difficulties  encount- 
ered at  that  time  and  arranging  matters  that  would  be  satisfactory 
in  the  future.  The  difficulty  was  we  assumed  that  Seattle  sand  should 
be  used  the  same  as  the  sand  is  used  in  the  Eastern  States  with 
10!/2  per  cent,  of  bitumen.  I  found  that  the  material  which  we  were 
using  for  a  filler  was  simply  round  particles  of  sand,  which  were  of 
no  advantage  as  a  filler,  and  made  the  mixture  unstable;  and  I  had 
to  modify  it  by  adding  to  every  nine  cubic  feet  of  the  mixture  100 
pounds  of  ground  filler,  and  then  we  found  we  could  run  the  asphalt 
cement  up  to  a  point  where  our  mixture  contained  from  121/2  to  15 
per  cent,  of  asphalt.  That  was  determined  by  me  in  1904,  and  is 
being  successfully  laid  here  at  the  present  time. 

I  will  here  say  .that  tliere  are  no  general  conclusions  which  can 
be  applied  to  the  construction  of  asphalt  pavement  in  every  town. 
We  must  discover  the  local  conditions  and  meet  them.  There  are 
very  many  general  conclusions  which  can  be  drawn  from  the  be- 
havior of  sheet  asphalt  pavement,  which  it  seems  can  be  well  ap- 
plied to  the  country  highway.  - 

Prof.  Richardson  then  read  his  paper  on  "Asphalt  Macadam 
Roadways,"  which  is  printed  below : 


ASPHALT  MACADAM  ROADWAYS. 
BY  CLIFFORD  RICHARDSON,  M.  AM.  Soc.  C.  E. 

It  is  somewhat  surprising,  to  one  who  has  been  a  close  observer 
of  the  development  of  the  modern  sheet  asphalt  pavement  in  the 
United  States  during  the  last  forty  years,  that  so  little  application 
has  been  made  of  the  experience  gained  in  that  industry  to  the 
problem  of  .the  construction  of  bituminous  macadam  highways 
which  shall  meet  the  conditions  which  exist  to-day. 

There  should  not  be  any  essential  difference  in  principle  in  the 
construction  of  a  sheet  asphalt  pavement  and  a  bituminous  mac- 
adam roadway.  Both  consist  of  a  mineral  aggregate  cemented  to- 
gether with  a  bituminous  binding  material;  the  aggregate  in  one 
case  being  fine,  and  in  the  other  containing  coarse,  particles.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that,  in  either  type  of  surface,  the  mineral  ag- 
gregate being  of  a  suitable  character,  the  capacity  of  the  resulting 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  129 

surface  to  resist  travel  will  depend  on  the  more  or  less  satisfactory 
nature  of  the  cementing  material. 

In  the  early  days  'attempts  were  made  to  construct  pavements 
in  Washington  and  elsewhere  with  both  fine  and  coarse  aggregates, 
using  coal  tar  as  a  cementing  material.  All  these  attempts  with 
both  fine  and  coarse  aggregates  were  failures  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  and  its  use  was  abandoned  on  the  advent  of  the  form  of 
asphaltic  construction  developed  by  De  Smedt,  although  it  was  re- 
vived for  a  few  years  in  the  late  '80's  in  mixture  with  asphalt  with 
equally  disastrous  results.  The  surfaces  having  a  coarse  aggregate 
were  somewhat  more  lasting  than  those  made  with  sand,  and  a 
small  portion  remained  in  place  until  the  end  of  the  century.  They 
were  known  as  "Evans  pavements,"  and  were  resurfaced  with 
asphalt  after  a  few  years.  One  of  these,  protected  by  an  asphalt 
surface,  was  found,  on  repaving  Connecticut  Avenue,  in  Washing- 
ton, in  1906.  A  piece  of  it  was  collected  by  the  writer  and  exam- 
ined. A  section  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  From 
this  it  appears  that  a  coal  tar  bituminous  macadam  was  constructed 
as  long  ago  as  1873,  and  proved,  in  a  short  period  of  time,  not  to 
be  a  lasting  form  of  construction.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  ex- 
periment after  experiment  has  been  conducted  along  the  same  lines 
in  recent  years  with  similar  results.  Few,  if  any,  highway  engi- 
neers seem  to  have  benefited  by  the  experince  of  their  predecessors, 
and  most  of  them  still  have  the  coal  tar  lesson  to  learn  on  their 
own  part,  although  it  is  evident  that  this  form  of  construction  can- 
not give  satisfactory  results  for  more  than  a  few  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  referring  again  to  the  lessons  of  the  paving 
industry,  the  modern  sheet  asphalt  pavement,  where  constructed 
on  rational  lines  on  a  rigid,  well-drained  foundation,  has  proved  a 
complete  success,  as  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  a  pavement  of 
this  type  has  satisfactorily  resisted  the  heavy  travel  which  is  found 
on  Fifth  Avenue,  in  New  York  City — 14,000  vehicles  in  the  period 
between  '6  a.  m.  and  7  p.  m. — for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  In  the 
same  way  an  asphalt  concrete  surface  constructed  with  a  well- 
graded,  but  coarse,  mineral  aggregate  in  1902  in  Muskegon,  Mich., 
which  has  been  used  as  a  favorite  drive  since  that  time,  has  been 
in  use  with  no  repairs  whatever,  where  many  similar  surfaces  in 
which  coal  tar  has  been  the  cementing  material  have  deteriorated 
or  required  resurfacing  under  similar  circumstances  during  the 
same  period.  The  Muskegon  work  has  not  only  demonstrated  the 
superiority  of  asphalt  as  a  cementing  material,  but  this  has  been 
confirmed  by  other  surfaces  of  the  same  form  of  construction  in 
Owosso,  Mich.,  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  Scranton,  Pa.,  Staten  Island,  N. 
Y.,  and  elsewhere. 

The  evident  conclusion  which  may  be  drawn  from  past  and  pres- 
ent experience  is  that  success  can  be  arrived  at  in  the  construction 
of  any  form  of  bituminous  road  surface  only  by  the  use  of  asphalt 
as  a  cementing  material.  The  thing  to  be  considered  however,  is : 
How  can  asphalt  be  used  in  building  the  cheaper  forms  of  country 
highways,  which  are  now  in  demand  to  resist  motor  and  concen- 


130  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

trated  traffic,  where  the  aggregate  is  merely  of  the  grading  of  the 
ordinary  stone  which  is  employed  in  surfacing  macadam  roads? 
The  asphalt  surface  constructed  in  Muskegqn  in  1902,  and  else- 
where, was  an  asphaltic  concrete.  The  mineral  aggregate  was  well 
graded  and  in  itself  compact.  This  could  only  be  combined  with 
the  cementing  material  in  a  hot  condition,  which  required  a  plant 
to  which  the  aggregate  was  hauled  and  from  which  it  was  again 
hauled  to  the  point  where  it  was  put  in  place.  The  operation  was, 
therefore,  an  expensive  one,  and  makes  the  cost  of  this  form  of 
construction  prohibitive  for  country  roads.  Recourse  must  there- 
fore be  had  to  some  other  method  of  combining  a  mineral  aggregate 
and  asphalt  immediately  on  the  spot  where  the  surface  is  to  be 
constructed. 

For  many  years  tar  macadam  has  been  laid  in  England,  France, 
and,  to  a  smaller  extent,  in  this  country  in  Rhode  Island,  New 
Jersey,  and  elsewhere.  This  form  of  roadway  is  arrived  at  by 
coating  the  No.  2  or  surface  stone  of  the  macadam  with  coal  tar 
in  one  way  or  another,  either  before  or  after  rolling  it,  and  after- 
wards filling  the  voids  in  the  surface  with  more  tar  and  grit, 
screenings  or  sand.  Such  a  surface  is  desirable  when  first  finished; 
but  it  soon  begins  to  deteriorate  and  ravel,  especially  when  ex- 
posed to  horse-drawn  travel,  with  the  weathering  and  aging  of 
the  cementing  material.  From  past  experience,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that,  if  an  asphalt  cement  were  sub- 
stituted for  the  coal  tar,  a  result  would  be  attained  which  would 
correspond  to  the  improvement  which  was  evident  on  the  sub- 
stitution of  asphalt  for  tar  in  street  pavements.  The  difficulty  lies 
in  the  fact  that  an  asphalt  cement  is  much  more  viscous  than  tar. 
It  must  be  used  in  a  much  better  condition,  and  does  not  mix  with 
or  adhere  so  readily  to  cold  stone.  Experiments  have  shown,  how- 
ever, that  this  can  be  accomplished  by  using  a  much  softer  as- 
phalt than  is  customary  in  street  asphalt  pavements,  or  even  in 
surfaces  of  the  type  of  the  Muskegon  pavement.  To-day  we  find 
ourselves,  after  some  experiment,  in  the  position  of  being  able  to 
coat  stone,  of  the  type  used  in  macadam  surfaces,  with  an  asphalt 
cement  which  serves  satisfactorily  as  a  binder  for  such  an  aggre- 
gate, on  a  metal  mixing  board  with  hand  labor  and  shovels,  at  the 
point  on  the  road  where  the  material  is  to  be  put  in  place,  and  with 
very  reasonable  economy.  It  produces  a  surface  which,  while  not 
of  the  stability  or  having  the  wearing  properties  of  the  Muskegon 
type,  is  as  far  superior  to  the  ordinary  tar  macadam  as  the  sheet 
asphalt  pavement  is  superior  to  one  of  the  tar  poultices  of  thirty- 
five  years  ago. 

The  base  of  the  cementing  material  must,  however,  be  an  asphalt 
of  the  best  quality,  such  as  is  used  in  the  construction  of  sheet 
asphalt  pavements ;  in  fact,  it  must  be  an  asphalt  paving  cement 
such  as  is  called  for  under  the  strictest  municipal  specifications,  but 
merely  made  softer  by  the  use  of  a  larger  percentage  of  flux. 
Dense  oils  and  residuums  to  which  no  solid  native  bitumen  has 
been  added  will  not  accomplish  the  same  results  to  any  greater  or 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  131 

more  satisfactory  degree  than  they  would  if  used  in  a  street  pave- 
ment. Further,  the  character  of  the  flux  in  asphalt  cements  for 
use  in  macadam  must  be  more  carefully  taken  into  consideration 
than  that  for  use  in  street  pavements,  as  the  amount  is  so  much 
larger,  in  consequence  of  which  it  has  a  greater  bearing  on  the 
character  of  the  cement. 

On  the  Pacific  Slope,  the  opportunity  for  the  construction  of 
roadways  of  the  highest  type,  which  has  been  described,  is  facili- 
tated by  the  fact  that  vast  quantities  of  residual  pitch  and  flux, 
most  of  it  of  suitable  quality,  is  available  as  a  cementing  material 
or  binder,  so  that  all  that  is  necessary  is  a  certain  amount  of  skill 
and  experience  in  handling  it,  to  attain  the  best  results.  In  fact, 
there  is  no  part  of  the  world  which  is  so  favorably  situated  for 
solving  the  road  problem  as  the  state  of  Washington,  where  stone 
of  the  highest  grade  is  available  for  the  mineral  aggregate,  and  a 
cheap  and  abundant  supply  of  cementing  material  from  the  neigh- 
boring state  of  California.  The  state  is  to  be  congratulated  on  the 
opportunities  which  it  has  in  these  directions,  upon  the  energy 
with  which  the  road  problem  is  being  attacked,  and  upon  the  pros- 
pects of  success  which  lie  before  it. 

Types  of  asphalt  macadam  roads  such  as  have  been  described 
in  this  paper  are  given  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 


DISCUSSION. 

Question:  Is  asphalt  principally  used  in  New  York  as  the  most 
popular  pavement? 

Mr.  Richardson:  There  is  more  asphalt  paving  than  any  other 
type  of  improved  street, 

M.  O.  Eldredge:  A  few  days  ago  a  gentleman  told  me  that  the 
poor  pavements  in  Washington  had  been  covered  with  asphalt,  and 
that  was  one  reason  why  they  had  lasted  for  so  many  years.  I 
telegraphed  to  Washington,  to  the  Chief  Engineer  of  our  office, 
and  asked  him:  (1)  Have  the  sixteen  pavements  of  which  we  have 
samples  been  covered  with  asphalt?  (2)  Have  they  been  in  con- 
tinuous service?  And  he  telegraphed  back  that  part  of  the  pave- 
ments had  never  been  covered  with  asphalt  and  had  been  in  con- 
tinuous service.  I  would  like  to  ask  you  what  you  know  about 
this. 

Mr.  Richardson:     As  I  was  connected  with  the  Engineers'  De- 
partment of  the  District  of  Columbia  for  a  number  of  years,  I  have 
some  acquaintance  with  this  matter.     I  have  examined  the  speci- 
mens which  you  have  here.     One  is  labeled  "From  Highland  Ter- 
M.R.B.— 10 


132  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

race,"  which  is  not  a  public  highway,  and  has  very  little  traffic. 
A  portion  of  the  original  tar  composition  still  stands  there;  but 
it  was  very  badly  cracked  and  has  received  a  large  amount  of 
repair.  The  same  applies  to  most  of  the  other  samples  you  have 
there.  They  are  merely  remnants  of  old  pavements,  and  the  sam- 
ples are  not  covered  with  asphalt ;  but  most  of  the  roads  were  cov- 
ered with  sheet  asphalt.  I  was  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  when  Con- 
necticut Avenue  was  being  taken  up,  and  it  was  a  most  remarkable 
sight.  It  looked  like  an  old  fill.  They  took  off  two  or  three  rows 
of  the  surface  until  they  got  to  the  old  Evans  pavement.  It  looked 
like  a  fill  in  State  Street,  Chicago.  A  concrete  foundation  was  put 
in,  and  a  modern  sheet  asphalt  pavement.  At  that  time  I  collected 
one  of  these  pieces  of  the  old  Evans  pavement,  and  carried  it  to 
my  laboratory  as  a  curiosity,  and  had  a  section  of  it  made.  It  is 
coarse  stone  and  fine  sand  mixed  up  together,  without  any  rational 
idea  of  grading.  In  those  days  they  had  no  idea  of  the  regular 
consistency  of  tar,  and  that  sample  of  the  old  town  pavement  which 
is  on  exhibit  in  the  Government  Building  will  show  you  what  the 
grading  was. 

Mr.  Eldredge:     Were  those  pavements  built  under  patents? 

Mr.  Richardson:  Yes.  Mr.  Evans  owned  a  patent;  but  it  was 
one  of  those  patents  where  you  must  put  so  much  sulphur  and 
so  much  of  this  and  that,  and  was  of  no  value  in  the  construction 
of  these  pavements.  It  was  a  patent  used  simply  for  promotion 
purposes. 

Mr.  Campbell:  In  my  experience  I  have  heard  so  many  reasons 
given  for  the  cause  of  cracked  pavements  and  I  have  had  my  own 
idea  of  the  thing;  but  I  have  heard  so  many  reasons  I  would  like 
to  have  your  idea.  That  seems  to  be  the  main  objection  to  this 
style  of  pavement 

Mr.  Richardson:  I  have  alluded  to  one  cause  of  the  cracking 
when  speaking  of  the  Toronto  pavement,  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
sand  will  not  carry  bitumen ;  but  that  is  not  universal,  nor  by  any 
means  the  general  cause.  The  cause  usually  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  asphaltic  cement  has  not  a  sufficient  amount  of  flux  and  is  not 
soft  enough.  It  is  also  due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  not  enough  as- 
phalt cement  used,  and  not  sufficient  bitumen  in  the  pavement. 
Those  were  the  experiences  of  some  years  ago.  In  fact,  during  the 
last  five  years  we  have  derived  so  much  evidence  of  the  stability  of 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  133 

the  mineral  aggregates  in  the  filler  used  that  the  asphalt  to-day  is 
from  20  to  30  points  softer  than  it  was  five  years  ago.  I  would  say 
that  the-  matter  of  avoiding  cracks  to-day  is  very  simple,  if  the  per- 
son constructing  the  pavement  has  had  sufficient  experience  and 
is  skillful  enough  in  laying  it  with  the  information  at  present  to  be 
had. 

An  Inquirer:  Mr.  Thomson  made  a  remark  that  a  friend  had 
offered  him  a  dollar  for  every  crack  in  a  certain  pavement  on  Capitol 
Hill.  We  have  laid  some  pavement,  and  the  same  mixture  has  been 
used,  and  I  recall  two  places  where  there  are  cracks  on  the  hill. 
Why  should  there  be  a  crack  on  the  hill,  and  not  on  a  level  surface, 
from  the  same  mixture? 

Mr.  Richardson:  There  must  be  some  peculiarity  in  the  founda- 
tion. If  the  foundation  cracks,  the  crack  is  carried  through  to  the 
surface.  It  might  interest  you  to  know  why  the  California  rock 
asphalt  did  not  prove  satisfactory.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  sand  is  of  one  size  grain.  It  is  a  sand  which  is  impregnated 
with  bitumen;  but  there  is  no  filler,  nor  anything  to  give  stability. 
The  only  way  that  it  can  be  brought  to  a  proper  consistency  is  by 
heating  the  asphaltic  sand  until  the  excessive  oil  is  driven  out.  It 
could  not  be  expected  that  would  serve  well  in  this  climate ;  but  if 
that  be  heated,  and  there  be  the  proper  amount  of  sand,  you  give 
the  minimum  aggregate  stability,  and  a  good  pavement  can  be  pro- 
vided, but  it  would  require  rather  an  extraordinary  amount  of  skill 
to  do  it. 

Mr.  Campbell :  We  have  found  that  after  a  street  has  been  com- 
pleted, and  the  rolling  finished,  the  surface  appears  to  be  of  a  uni- 
form character  in  appearance  and  in  every  respect ;  but  a  little 
later  on,  after  a  rainstorm,  you  will  notice  some  patches  here  and 
there  over  the  surface  where  the  asphalt  appears  to  have  attracted 
the  moisture  just  enough  to  show  a  little  dark  patch.  Closely  ob- 
serving that,  we  find  later  on  that  the  wheel  seems  to  touch  these 
patches,  or  spots  and  a  depression  is  caused.  Later  on  this  will 
hold  a  little  water,  and  keeps  increasing,  until  finally  a  hole  ap- 
pears there,  which  spoils  the  whole  surface  of  the  pavement.  Some- 
times I  have  noticed  that  you  will  find  a  series  of  these  patches  or 
blisters,  as  it  were,  and  I  have  wondered  what  is  the  cause.  I  can 
quite  understand  that  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  sand;  the  sand  forming  from  90  to  92  per  cent,  of  the 


134  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

composition.  Consequently  much  care  should  be  taken  in  the 
selection  of  the  sand.  If  a  good,  clean,  pure  silica  should  be  se- 
lected and  carefully  mixed  and  applied,  I  should  think  that  would 
meet  with  success ;  but  I  have  thought  that  possibly  these  patches 
were  caused  by  poor  material — poor  sand,  or  earthy  matter  of  some 
description  being  found  among  the  sand. 

Mr.  Richardson:  It  is  entirely  due  to  the  fact  that  material  is 
not  properly  raked  out.  You  dump  a  load  of  material  on  the  street, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  in  constructing  an  as- 
phalt pavement  that  it  shall  all  be  loosened  up  and  spread  evenly 
before  it  is  rolled.  If  there  is  one  place1  denser  than  another,  the 
roller  will  rise,  and  will  not  press  the  looser  portion ;  and  the  spots 
you  speak  of,  without  doubt,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  material 
has  not  been  evenly  raked.  The  very  fact  that  the  spots  appear 
shortly  after  the  road  is  laid  shows  that  it  has  not  been  properly 
pressed.  I  only  know  one  town  which  is  situated  the  same  as 
Toronto  as  regards  the  small  amount  of  bitumen  in  the  sand,  and 
that  is  Moline,  Illinois.  They  have  the  two  sands  which  will  carry 
bitumen  less  satisfactorily  than  any  other  city. 

Mr.  Campbell:  Would  there  be  anything  in  the  fact  of  the  ma- 
terial cooling  off  at  the  side  of  the  box? 

Mr.  Richardson:  The  portions  that  are  cooled  are,  of  course, 
more  difficult  to  rake  than  the  warmer  portions. 

(End  of  discussion.) 

ADDRESS  TO  MR.  SAMUEL  HILL. 

Hon.  C.  H.  Hanford:  It  has  been  suggested,  very  properly  I 
think,  that  the  record  of  this  Congress  should  contain  some  expres- 
sion of  the  value  of  Mr.  Hill's  services  in  the  cause  of  good  roads, 
and  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  prepare  a  suitable  resolution 
to  be  submitted  to  vote  here  this  afternoon. 

Chairman  Lawrence  then  appointed  the  following  Committee  to 
prepare  the  resolution : 

Chairman,  Judge  Hanford;  and  Messrs.  E.  L.  Powers,  of  New 
York,  and  W.  B.  George,  of  Montana. 

This  committee  met  during  the  luncheon  interval  and  formulated 
the  resolution. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  135 


AFTERNOON  SESSION,  2  O'CLOCK. 


TARMAC  ROADS. 

The  last  session  of  the  First  Congress  of  American  Road  Builders 
was  remarkable  principally  for  the  address  of  Mr.  E.  Purnell 
Hooley,  of  Nottingham,  England,  on  the  subject  of  "Tarmac 
Roads."  Mr.  Hooley's  address  was  illustrated  by  several  photo- 
graphs of  roads  he  had  made  and  samples  of  the  roads  and  material 
of  which  they  were  constructed. 

Mr.  Hooley,  who  was  received  with  loud  applause,  spoke  as  fol- 
lows: 

PAPKR  BY  E.  PURNEXL  HOOLEY. 

It  is  with  considerable  pride  that  I  accept  the  kind  invitation 
given  to  me  by  Mr.  Hill  to  deliver  a  paper  on  a  subject  that  has 
occupied  in  the  past,  and  is  occupying,  the  greater  portion  of  every 
road  engineer's  best  energies  in  England,  as  well  as  every  other 
civilized  country,  viz.,  how  to  construct  good  and  permanent  roads 
at  the  minimum  of  present  and  future  expense. 

The  only  solution  that  the  writer  has  been  able  to  arrive  at  is 
the  treatment  of  roads  with  tar  as  a  binder,  and  this  paper  must  be 
entitled  "Tar  and  Its  Uses  in  Modern  Road  Construction." 

It  is  not  here  proposed  to  enter  into  any  detail  of  general  road 
construction.  Other  writers  will  deal,  and  doubtless  have,  as  spe- 
cialists in  the  many  branches  of  the  road  question ;  but  there  is 
little  doubt  all  will  unite  in  agreeing  that  good  roads  are  absolute 
necessities  in  the  advancement  and  development  of  a  progressive 
country,  and  that  without  good  roads  it  is  impossible  to  advance, 

By  roads,  in  this  case,  all  roads,  be  it  waterways,  railways,  horse- 
ways,  are  embraced ;  but  for  internal  development  and  progress 
the  ordinary  highways  must  be  the  actual  nerves  that  bring  in 
touch  the  general  internal  public  with  the  outside  world. 

In  England  the  maintenance  of  highways  has  become  of  such 
importance  that  hardly  a  day  passes  without  some  new  proposal 
being  made  for  dealing  with  the  cost  of  management  of  the  same. 

Broadly,  at  present,  all  the  existing  English  main  roads  are  vest- 
ed in  the  county  councils.  The  urban  and  rural  councils  have  the 
care  of  the  branch  of  district  roads.  New  roads  have  to  be  made  by 
private  individuals,  and  have  to  be  thoroughly  well  constructed  and 
properly  dedicated  before  they  are  taken  over  by  the  local  public 
authorities. 

This  paper  is  to  deal  with  ordinary  country  roads,  not  town 
streets. 


136  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

The  (juestion  now  is,  how  best  to  repair  the  existing  roads ;  and 
America  has  the  experience  of  England  to  guide  her  in  the  matter 
of  expense,  and  trouble,  and  very  possibly  can  avoid  defeat,  by  carrying 
out  modern  ideas  in  laying  out  and  constructing  new  roads  on  the  very 
best  and  up-to-date  systems,  rather  than  having  to  patch  up  and 
undo  the  failures  and  disasters  that  the  ratepayers  of  England  are 
so  loudly  grumbling  about,  in  the  present  high  rates  they  are  called 
upon  to  pay. 

Roads  without  proper  foundations  are  the  most  expensive  and 
disappointing  to  deal  with,  but  to  re-form  the  foundations  of  all 
the  roads,  27,600  miles  of  main  and  possibly  92,300  miles  of  dis- 
trict roads,  of  England,  say  120,000,  would  cost  a  sum  so  large  that 
it  is  outside  the  bounds  of  possibility  to  even  think  of. 

The  general  practice  of  all  thinking  road  engineers  now  seems 
to  be  to  treat  the  present  roads  as  the  foundations  upon  which  to 
build  roads  of  a  permanent  character. 

In  America  it  surely  must  be  the  only  wise  course  to  thoroughly 
construct  new  roads  for  the  sake  of  present  and  future  road  users. 

Leaving  all  questions  of  foundations  to  be  dealt  with  by  other 
writers,  with  the  general  proviso  that  all  roads  should  or  must 
have  foundations,  the  writer  will  turn  his  remarks  to  surfacing. 

Where  roads  have  a  first-class  face,  and  it  is  possible  to  tar-wash 
that  face  at  least  once  every  four  months  at  a  cost  of  about  3  cents 
per  square  yard,  tar  as  a  surface  binder  will  undoubtedly  be  a  suc- 
cess in  temporarily  holding  the  surface  of  an  ordinary  macadam 
road  together;  but  there  its  help  and  benefit  ends.  It  will  not  make 
a  weak  road,  subject  to  disintegration  from  below,  a  strong  one. 
It  will  not  hold  material  together  when  subject  to  disintegration 
from  frost  and  thaw ;  for  it  certainly  will  not  hold  a  road  together 
in  any  part  which  mere  surface  treatment  does  not  reach. 

But  a  road  composed  throughout  of  thoroughly  tarred  material 
will  do  all  that  it  has  here  been  stated  surface  treatment  only  will 
not  do. 

Tarmacadam  has  been  in  use  for  many  years  in  England,  often 
it  has  been  a  success  where  least  expected,  and  more  often  it  has 
been  a  failure ;  and  when  a  failure  has  to  be  faced,  it  is  by  far  the 
best  plan  to  go  to  the  root  of  the  trouble  and  endeavor  to  ascertain 
its  cause,  rather  than  attempt  to  continue  the  failure  on  the  chance 
of  success  later. 

The  failure  of  Tarmacadam  has  been  due  to  the  inability  to  se- 
cure the  adherence  of  the  tar  to  the  material  that  was  to  be  tarred. 
The  slightest  moisture  on  the  material  or  chilling  of  the  tar  means 
failure  of  adherence,  and  the  use  of  a  soft  material  that  would  allow 
of  adherence  means  a  failure  through  the  road  giving  way  as  a 
whole. 

No  material  can  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  Tarmacadam 
that  is  not  hot  or  heated,  and  the  more  the  material  is  heated,  so  as 
to  allow  the  center  of  the  material  to  be  the  hottest  part,  the  bet- 
ter will  be  the  tarring,  but  the  weaker  the  material. 

The  materials  that  have  previously  proved  the  most  satisfactory 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  137 

in  Tarmacadam  work  have  been  limestones  from  varying  neighbor- 
hoods; but,  if  limestone  has  been  subjected  to  a  temperature  suffi- 
cient to  heat  the  stone  throughout,  the  very  nature  will  have  been 
burnt  or  dried  out  of  the  stone,  and  the  fact  that  tar  is  afterwards 
applied  will  not  secure  a  road  material  that  will  stand  anything  but 
foot  passenger  traffic  for  any  length  of  time.  The  difficulty  also 
arises  that,  to  heat  sufficiently  a  large  quantity  of  material,  a  dry- 
ing and  store  place  of  such  dimensions  is  necessitated  as  to  make 
the  cost  almost  prohibitive,  apart  from  the  large  amount  of  manual 
labor  required  in  so  many  times  handling  the  material. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  large  iron  works  slag  has  been  greatly, 
successfully,  used  as  a  road  material,  and  when  it  was  possible 
to  convert  that  slag  into  Tarmacadam  a  fair  result  has  from  time 
to  time  been  obtained. 

Those  who  know  anything  of  iron  as  made  in  England  know  of 
the  large  heaps  of  refuse  slag  which  surround  the  big  blast  fur- 
naces, and  also  know  the  disposal  of  the  slag  has  long  been  a 
source  of  anxiety  to  the  iron  works  owners. 

While  watching  the  slag  pouring  out  of  a  furnace  one  day,  it 
struck  the  author  that  the  whole  trouble  of  heating  the  slag  for  the 
manufacture  of  Tarmacadam  was  unnecessary;  for  here  was  the 
material  that  later  would  be  in  an  ideal  condition,  ready  and  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  very  best  results  in  road  construction  could 
be  obtained. 

He  had  a  breaking  and  tar  mixing  plant  constructed.  The  hot 
slag  was  brought  from  the  furnaces  in  large  caldrons,  each  contain- 
ing about  four  tons,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  about  twenty-four 
hours  until  consolidated.  It  was  then  tipped  onto  a  cooling 
ground,  and  about  twelve  hours  later,  when  the  outside  tempera- 
ture of  the  slag  was  about  160°  Fahr.,  broken  up  either  by  hand  or 
by  means  of  a  dumping  hammer,  and  conveyed,  while  the  outside 
was  still  warm,  to  the  breaker.  It  was  then  passed  through  break- 
ers and  screened  to  form  varying  gauges. 

The  center  portion  of  the  material,  which  was  still  the  hottest, 
was  passed  into  a  steam-heated  cylinder  constructed  to  keep  the 
material  in  motion;  heated  tar,  pitch,  and  other  compounds  being 
poured  into  the  same  cylinder  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  bath,  and 
the  whole*  turned  and  churned  up.  From  the  cylinder  it  was  de- 
posited into  the  railway  trucks  and  was  ready  for  use. 

This  material  is  delivered  by  rail  where  required,  and  can  be  pro- 
duced at  the  works  in  a  most  remunerative  manner  for  eight  shill- 
ings and  six  pence,  or  say  two  dollars,  per  ton,  to  which,  of  course, 
must  be  added  railway  freights  when  conveyed  to  a  distance. 

The  material  is  delivered  onto  the  roads  in  the  county  of  Not- 
tinghamshire, with  a  railway  journey  of  thirty  miles,  and  up  to 
three  miles  of  road  cartage,  allowing  for  a  thickness  of  three  inches, 
when  consolidated,  of  road  crust,  at  a  cost  of  from  60  to  70  cents 
per  yard  super. 

This  material  has  been  in  use  for  seven  winters  on  a  road  with  a 
water-logged,  round-stone  foundation,  that  previously  had  to  be 


133  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

coated  with  2~y2  inches  of  Leicestershire  syenite  each  year,  and  is 
now  in  good  and  perfect  condition,  with  practically  no  surface 
dust,  and  absolutely  no  dust,  as  previously  was  the  case,  from 
attrition  and  disintegration.  (Photographs  Nos.  2  and  5.) 

The  scavenging  is  reduced  to  the  removal  of  horse  droppings  and 
earth  brought  from  the  adjoining  fields. 

This  material  has  been  registered  under  the  name  of  "Tarmac," 
to  keep  it  from  being  confused  with  the  old-fashioned  Tarmac- 
adam;  and  it  is  different  from  the  latter,  inasmuch  as  in  its  use  the 
road  surface  is  composed  of  a  good  wearing  material  l1/^  inches  in 
gauge,  with  a  minimum  of  tar  to  waterproof  it,  and  from  its  proper 
adherence,  instead  of,  as  previously  was  the  case  in  Tarmacadam, 
being  composed  of  very  fine  particles  of  softer  stone,  with  a  large 
amount  of  tar  only  partially  adhering  to  it. 

To  construct  a  good  Tarmac  road,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an 
ordinary  road  as  a  bottom,  or  as  good  a  foundation  as  is  possible ; 
if  a  waterproof  one  is  desired,  then  it  must  be  of  Tarmac.  The 
bottom  layer  of  Tarmac  can  be  of  4-inch  gauge  material,  laid  se- 
curely and  rolled,  with  the  interstices  filled  up  with  finer  Tarmac, 
and  the  whole  steam-rolled.  The  next  layer  should  be  about  three- 
fourths  of  -an  inch  in  thickness,  of  %-inch  Tarmac,  and  left  un- 
rolled ;  on  this  should  be  supplied  a  214-inch  gauge  Tarmac,  rolled 
into  the  %-inch,  and,  when  rolled,  %-inch  Tarmac  would  be  swept 
with  a  brush  into  every  crevice  or  open  joint.  Then  a  further 
layer  of  %-inch  Tarmac  should  be  applied  as  before,  unrolled,  and, 
as  a  last  coating,  a  perfect  layer  of  li/2-mcri  Tarmac  should  be  ap- 
plied, and,  after  the  roller  has  passed  twice  each  way  over  its  face, 
%-inch  Tarmac  should  again  be  swept  into  each  crevice,  so  that 
a  perfect  face  is  presented.  The  whole  must  again  be  steam-rolled 
by  a  steam  roller  being  passed  over  three  or  four  times,  and  the 
road  is  at  once  fit  for  traffic.  (See  drawing  of  ideal  Tarmac  road, 
cross-section  No.  1.) 

If  the  traffic  will  not  allow  of  the  whole  width  of  the  road  sur- 
face being  stopped  at  one  time,  the  work  can  be  carried  on  by  tak- 
ing half  the  width  at  a  time ;  but  care  must  be  shown  in  leaving 
each  layer  of  material  to  form  a  Greek  key  lap. 

It  is  bad  work  to  attempt  to  feather  the  edges  or  thin  down 
'a  Tarmac  road.  When  a  patch  is  applied,  or  a  coating  ended,  it 
should  be  finished  with  a  square  or  butt  joint;  if  otherwise  dealt 
with,  the  edges  will  fray  or  waste  away. 

The  camber,  or  cross-fall,  of  a  Tarmac  road,  should  not  be  great- 
er than  1  in  50  from  the  center  to  the  sides,  and  a  perfect  formation 
should  be  carried  throughout  from  the  foundation,  so  that  the 
whole  thickness  should  be  complete. 

There  is  no  need  for  pitched  gutter  courses  in  Tarmac  roads, 
but  in  lieu  a  final  washing  of  boiling  tar  to  a  width  of  18  inches  or 
2  feet  from  the  curbing  to  form  a  gutter  prevents  scouring  and 
assists  sweeping  up  in  cities  and  populous  places. 

In  the  maintenance  of  ordinary  macadam  roads  great  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  patching  holes  and  depressions. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  139 

A  most  satisfactory  patch  can  be  carried  out  by  means  of  Tar- 
mac ;  and  the  practice  is  followed  on  all  the  main  roads  of  Notting- 
ham, either  for  ordinary  wear  in  water-bound  roads,  or  to  repair 
.disturbances  in  Tarmac  roads. 

It  is  necessary  to  cut  out  to  the  required  depth  any  portion  of 
the  road  surface  that  is  loose,  worn,  thin,  or  disturbed,  so  as  to 
leave  a  sharp,  cleanly  defined  edge.  This  must  be  swept  clean  from 
any  sign  of  dust  in  dry  weather.  Then  a  thin  coat  of  %-inch  Tar- 
mac should  be  applied  with  the  greatest  thickness  at  the  edges. 
The  necessary  material  for  the  patch  filling  is  then  applied,  well 
and  carefully  rammed  with  a  hand  rammer,  and,  when  rammed, 
any  interstices  filled  with  %-inch  Tarmac,  rammed  again,  and 
when  nearly  dry  the  whole  should  be  swept  over  with  dust  from 
the  adjoining  road  surface.  A  perfectly  level,  neat  patch  is  thus 
formed.  (A  better  idea  of  this  may  be  appreciated  by  a  reference 
to  drawing  No.  2,  and  the  beneficial  result  is  clearly  shown  in 
photograph  No.  3.)  Here  will  be  seen  patches  on  the  left  hand, 
applied  in  the  foregoing  manner,  and  after  twelve  months'  wear 
remaining  good  and  strong  as  ever,  very  faint  in  outline,  while  the 
road  adjoining  is  going  to  pieces  in  dry  weather  through  heavy 
traffic  and  disintegration,  though  washed  with  tar. 

Photographs  are  also  presented  showing  (Nos.  1  and  4)  a  length 
of  Tarmac  road  adjoining  a  level  crossing  immediately  outside  the 
town  of  Newark,  Notts,  and  adjoining  the  Midland  Railway  Sta- 
tion. This  road,  previous  to  treatment  in  Tarmac  in  1898,  was  an- 
nually repaired  by  the  use  of  214-inch  guage  water-bound  Leices- 
tershire syenite,  the  best  available  road  stone  of  the  neighborhood. 
When  first  laid  the  Tarmac  cost  two  shillings  four  pence  per  yard 
super.  This  portion  has  once  been  refaced  by  the  application  of  a 
114-inch  coat  of  Tarmac  in  1905,  and  to-day  is  in  perfect  condition, 

Photograph  No.  5  shows  the  surface  of  a  main  road  a  mile,  and 
a  half  outside  the  city  of  Nottingham,  population  300,000.  The 
road  is  greatly  used  by  farm  carts,  motors,  and  motor  lorries,  as 
well  as  ordinary  vehicular  traffic  of  all  kinds.  It  has  been  laid  four 
winters,  and  has  had  no  other  material  applied  to  it.  It  is  prac- 
tically free  from  dust,  and  is  absolutely  an  ideal  road  for  all  types 
of  self-propelled  and  other  traffic. 

It  is  difficult  to  condense  a  subject  such  as  this  to  the  limits  of 
an  ordinary  paper,  and  the  best  apologies  are  offered  for  the  length 
that  the  paper  has  assumed. 

If  the  hearers  or  readers  are  interested,  and  should  any  good 
result  therefrom,  the  writer  is  well  repaid,  and,  while  frankly  ad- 
mitting that  he  does  not  state  he^as  of  necessity  solved  the  road 
difficulty,  he  here  lays  the  result  of  his  labors  before  the  great 
American  people  at  their  first  Road  Congress,  and  hopes  the  same 
will  be  appreciated  and  approved  of. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen: 

Here  I  finished  my  paper,  but  I  could  never  forgive  myself  if  I 
thus  ended  abruptly.  I  cannot — I  dare  not,  for  my  conscience's 


140  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

sake — say  my  public  farewell  to  you  without  thanking  you,  one 
and  all,  for  your  kindness,  your  open-heartedness,  your  hospitality, 
and  the  right  royal  reception  I  have  received  in  this  your  beautiful 
country. 

The  Great  God  has  been  bountiful  to  you  in  placing  you  all  in 
such  heavenly  surroundings,  and  I  am  proud  to  feel,  and  see,  that 
he  has  also  given  you  men  who,  in  their  humble  position  as  his 
instruments,  are  fully  alive  to  their  great  responsibilities.  I  can- 
not name  all  these  men — you  know  them  better  than  I  do — but  I 
must  name  three. 

I  have  never  seen  more  beautifully  constructed  town  roads,  with 
such  perfect  faces,  as  those  now  perfected  by  Mr.  Thomson.  In 
this  man  you  have  an  engineer  that  any  city  in  England  would  be 
proud  to  employ,  and  could  confidently  trust  their  best  interests 
to.  Let  me  ask  you  to  continue  your  trust,  and  let  me  by  these 
few  words  show  my  appreciation  of  a  great  man. 

In  my  opinion,  in  Mr.  Lancaster  you  have  a  peerless  teacher  en- 
gaged in  what  we  in  England  call  real  "spade  work" — the  most 
fruitful  of  all  good  work,  for  without  it  you  cannot  reap  the  good 
fruit  hereafter.  I  have  as  an  Englishman  more  than  an  apprecia- 
tion of  such  a  man  and  such  work.  His  position  is  one  I  dare  not 
undertake.  The  responsibility  of  it  would  be  too  great.  But  he 
has  undertaken  it.  Remember  this,  and  its  responsibility,  and  be 
merciful,  be  kind,  to  him,  and  I  beg  you  will  help  him ;  for  he  is 
helping  others,  and  by  that  help  helping  you.  The  future  genera- 
tions will  look  back  at  his  efforts,  and  I  know  will  live  to  thank 
God  for  the  kindly  diffusion  of  his  more  than  useful  knowledge. 

And  now,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  let  me  finally  conclude  by  pay- 
ing my  real  respects  to  the  man  of  all  others  that  I  feel  you  and  I 
owe  more  to  than  any  words  of  mine  can  ever  express.  You  know 
whom  I  refer  to — if  he  will  allow  me — may  I  call  him  my  friend, 
Mr.  Hill ! 

May  I  say  Sam  Hill?  For  as  Sam  Hill  I  firmly  believe  he  loves 
you  to  think  of  him.  Your  and  my  friend — my  host — Sam  Hill ! 
Look  at  him  !  To  see  him  is  to  see  he  stands  head  and  shoulders 
above  his  fellows,  and  to  know  him  is  to  love  him.  Yes,  love  him, 
as  real  men  and  women  should  love  their  leaders;  for  is  he  not 
physically  and  morally  a  leader?  I  have  never  met  such  a  man  in 
my  life,  and  I  fear  I  never  shall  see  his  like  again.  He  to  me  is 
peerless.  He  has  no  ax  of  his  own  to  grind.  His  one  object,  that 
I  have  found,  is  for  your  and  his  country's  good,  and  I  know  no 
man  in  this  life  more  entitled  to  your  and  my  respect  and  admira- 
tion. When  the  time  comes,  which  must  come  to  us  all,  for  the 
Great  Master  to  call  my  friend  to  his  final  rest,  I  feel  the  best 
epitaph  that  could  be  written  on  his  earthly  tomb  would  be : 

"He  Helped." 

Ladies  and  gentlemen,  I  thank  you  again  and  again  for  all  your 
kindness  and  patience,  and  say  from  the  very  bottom  of  my  heart: 
Farewell.  God  be  with  you,  in  all  your  best  endeavors. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  141 

Chairman  Lawrence :  I  would  like  to  suggest  that  a  special  vote 
of  thanks  should  be  tendered  to  Mr.  Hooley,  the  great  Englishman 
who  has  addressed  us  so  very  eloquently. 

A  rising  vote  of  thanks  was  heartily  tendered  Mr.  Hooley,  who 
in  reply  said:  "I  cannot  thank  you  more  than  saying:  'Thank 
you,  thank  you,  thank  you,  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart/  " 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Richardson:  I  have  been  greatly  interested  listening  to  Mr. 
Hooley,  and  would  like  to  ask  him  what  thickness  of  tarmac  he 
puts  on  the  top  of  his  foundation. 

Mr.  Hooley:  I  do  not  like  the  term  "foundation."  I  make  the 
old  road  my  foundation.  That  is  the  road,  and  what  I  have  seen 
of  your  country  roads  I  should  be  content  to  put  it  right  on  top 
of  one  of  these  roads.  You  want  to  put  the  three-eighths  material ; 
that  is  one  thickness.  On  top  of  that  you  want  to  put  the  two  and 
a  quarter  inch  material  that  rolls  down  practically  two  inches.  On 
top  of  that,  when  temporarily  rolled,  you  want  to  put  another  layer 
of  three-eighths  to  form  a  bed,  and  into  that  you  want  to  steam-roll 
the  one  and  a  half,  and  when  you  have  steam-rolled  the  one  and  a 
half  you  want  to  fill  the  interstices  with  fine  material,  and  you  get 
the  finest  piece  of  road.  The  "Denby"  which  we  use  is  a  light 
slag.  If  you  break  a  piece,  if  you  take  a  piece  and  break  it,  you 
will  see  that  the  inside  shows  a  brown  mark  where  the  tar  has  got 
into  the  material,  and  that  is  what  you  want  in  Tarmacadam.  Mr. 
Richardson  took  me  since  I  came  here  to  a  piece  of  road,  and  we 
both  smiled  that  anybody  should  be  silly  enough  to  make  a  Tar- 
macadam  as  we  saw  it.  You  cannot  make  it  by  putting  dirt  into 
tar.  You  want  to  make  the  material  solid,  that  will  stand  your 
traffic,  and  not  only  wear,  but  allow  the  horses  to  stand  on  top  of 
it.  If  you  once  get  such  a  piece  of  good  road,  you  will  find  any  ani- 
mal will  stand  on  it  in  perfect  comfort.  In  England  we  are  a  na- 
tion of  grumblers,  and  to  get  over  the  possibility  of  anybody  grum- 
bling we  make  a  strip  of  tarmac  up  the  middle,  and  at  the  sides  the 
ordinary  macadam,  and  we  have  never  made  one  but  what  the 
farmers  have  said:  "What  do  you  want  to  go  and  put  mud  on  the 
road  for.  Give  us  a  whole  road  of  your  tarmac."  You  may  get 


142  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

some  idea  of  the  traffic  on  our  roads  when  I  tell  you  that  we- have 
as  many  as  six  or  seven  traction  engines,  weighing  from  sixty  to 
seventy  tons  each,  passing  over  our  roads  in  an  hour. 

An  Inquirer:  Can  you  use  anything  but  slag?  Can  you  use 
limestone,  or  that  sort  of  stuff? 

Mr.  Hooley:  Limestone,  as  we  have  it  in  England,  is  a  failure. 
If  you  get  an  ordinary  piece  of  stone,  let  us  say  ordinary  granite, 
and  you  try  to  warm  it,  you  can  get  the  outside  hot,  but  not  the 
inside ;  for,  if  you  do,  you  take  the  nature  out  of  the  stone.  If  you 
could  make  it  warm  right, through,  I  would  make  tarmac  at  once; 
but  if  it  is  cold  in  the  center,  and  hot  outside,  the  tar  gets  away  from 
it,  and  you  get  tar  dust  as  bad  as  you  can  get  it;  but  if  you  get  it 
absorbed  and  thoroughly  joined  into  it,  you  will  have  a  perfect  road, 
and  I  am  only  too  thankful  I  have  been  able  to  use  that  refuse  slag. 
If  you  had  seen  the  letters  which  I  have  received,  you  would  see 
that  there  is  some  good  in  a  tarmac  road  made  of  slag. 

Mr.  Terrace:  I  am  a  farmer,  and  have  been  waiting  anxiously 
to  ask  a  question.  We  have  heard  a  good  deal  in  this  Congress  with 
regard  to  our  streets,  the  making  of  our  streets  in  the  city,  and  the 
maintaining  of  the  streets ;  but  there  has  been  very  little  said  with 
regard  to  our  country  roads.  You  have  been  out  to  Orilla,  and  have 
gone  over  our  improved  highways.  You  have  noticed  the  material 
that  these  highways  are  constructed  of,  and  I  want  to  ask  you  this 
question.  In  my  opinion  our  present  improved  highways  are  a 
failure.  We  have  got  to  get  down  and  adopt  something  else,  or  this 
movement  in  this  state  is  a  failure.  What  I  want  to  ask  you  as  a 
farmer,  with  your  great  knowledge,  I  would  like  to  have  your  opin- 
ion as  to  whether  you  think,  with  the  present  material  we  have  at 
hand,  and  with  your  tar,  that  we  can  construct  a  road  anywhere 
near  as  good  as  that  road  you  have  there  (indicating  sample  road). 
It  may  cost  more  at  first,  but  it  certainly  will  be  the  cheapest  at 
the  finish,  and  we  might  just  as  well,  as  farmers,  get  right  down  to 
it  and  prepare  ourselves  to  meet  the  cost.  It  is  a  business  proposi- 
tion, and  it  is  only  a  mere  bagatelle  compared  with  the  benefits  we 
will  get  out  of  it. 

Mr.  Hooley:  I  should  not  like  to  say  yes  or  no.  I  cannot  make 
that  road  of  granite  or  of  trap.  I  cannot  do  it;  but,  when  a  man 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  143 

like  Mr.  Hill  tells  me  that  he  knows  of  a  material  which  is  warm 
and  warmed  through  by  your  beautiful  sunshine,  directly  he  told 
me  that,  I  said  I  could  make  tarmac,  and  he  has  promised  to  get  me 
some  for  me  to  take  home,  and  I  have  promised  him  that  I  would 
see  the  best  use  that  can  be  made  of  it.  My  idea  was  to  make 
something — may  I  say  it — out  of  nothing,  to  make  use  of  that 
which  is  waste.  Before  I  got  to  Chicago,  I  saw  you  had  a  new 
town,  the  steel  town,  I  think  they  call  it,  and  they  were  beginning 
taking  their  slag  from  their  works,  and  in  that  you  have  a  ma- 
terial from  which  tarmac  could  be  made.  I  am  going  to  make  the 
material  with  which  Mr.  Hill  is  to  supply  me  as  hot  as  I  can  by 
dipping  it  into  the  slag,  and  see  if  I  cannot  make  the  matter  adhere 
to  it,  and  Mr.  Hill  will  be  able  to  show  you  the  result  of  what  I 
have  done  with  the  material  he  sends  me. 

An  Inquirer:     Can  you  do  it  with  water  gas  tar? 

Mr.  Hooley:  No;  you  must  have  tar  absolutely,  and  distilled 
tar.  Water  gas  tar  is  too  cheap  and  nasty  for  anything.  The  only 
thing  to  do  with  it  is  to  get  rid  of  it.  In  my  experience,  you  must 
get  good  distilled  tar,  and  with  a  proper  mixture,  not  only  tar,  but 
rosin  and  cement,  or  you  cannot  make  a  proper  road,  and  you  must 
use  a  proper  proportion  of  each ;  but,  if  I  gave  you  the  figures  of 
how  this  is  done,  I  would  be  doing  what  I  had  no  right  to  do  in  my 
present  position.  I  am  not  personally  interested  to  the  extent  of 
five  shillings  in  this  matter ;  but  men  have  ventured  a  great  deal 
in  this  for  my  sake,  and  I  must  not  give  away  the  secrets  which 
they  do  not  wish  me  to.  I  may  say  that  the  mixture  is  tar,  pitch, 
rosin,  and  cement ;  but,  until  you  know  the  proportions,  do  not 
waste  much  money,  and  find  yourself  £500  or  £600  out  of  pocket. 
You  get  a  mixture  which,  when  you  see  it,  you  will  say :  "It  is 
the  simplest  thing.  What  a  fool  I  was  not  to  see  it  before."  So 
was  I. 

I  would  like  to  get  some  of  you  gentlemen  to  come  and  run  over 
some  of  my  roads.  I  have  five  straight  miles  out  of  the  city  of 
Nottingham,  and  absolutely  no  dust  or  dirt  on  it.  I  am  not  going 
to  say  I  can  keep  the  dust  off  the  road  that  comes  from  the  fields. 
Mr.  Hill,  Mr.  Lancaster,  and  Mr.  Thomson  have  seen  the  road  and 
traveled  over  it.  You  can  go  on  the  ordinary  road  by  the  side  of 
it,  and  see  the  dust  coming  behind  a  motor  in  such  thickness  that 


144  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

you  cannot  see  the  motor  at  all;  but  when  you  get  on  this  road 
you  will  find  a  beautiful,  smooth  surface  free  from  dust.  It  is  a 
revelation,  and  we  get  motorists  from  all  over  England  to  come 
and  run  over  this  road.  In  Nottingham  we  have  good  roads,  but 
this  is  the  best.  Any  of  you  who  have  been  to  Brighton  will  know 
the  Midway  road,  the  invalid  road,  and  this  is  the  road  they  go  up 
and  down  to  avoid  the  dust  nuisance.  It  was  originally  con- 
structed for  automobile  speed  races,  and  the  records  made  on  a 
public  highway  were  made  on  that  road. 

Question:    Could  you  tell  us  the  cost? 

Mr.  Hooley:  Something  like  from  three  to  four  shillings  a  yard; 
much  further  away  than  we  are.  Of  course,  there  is  the  cost  of 
taking  it  down  from  one  side  of  England  to  the  other;  within  the 
points  which  are  close  handy,  the  cost  is  not  as  much. 

Question:     What  is  the  rate  per  ton  per  mile? 

Mr.  Hooley:  It  would  be  over  eight  shillings  a  ton  to  Brighton, 
because  it  is  four  shillings  to  London.  To  put  the  steam  roller 
over  the  material  requires  no  skilled  labor.  Any  farmer  can  put  it 
on  as  well  as  any  of  my  workmen,  if  they  follow  what  they  are  told 
to  do.  You  can  put  the  roller  on  in  less  than  an  hour  afterwards 
without  seeing  any  mark.  I  have  a  picture  here  of  a  park  near  Ox- 
ford, and  the  gentleman  who  took  a  fancy  to  my  road  said,  "If  you 
can  make  that  for  traffic,  let  me  have  it  near  my  place,"  and  I  put 
it  down  at  a  cost  of  under  two  shillings  a  yard.  I  have  also  an- 
other picture  here  of  a  road  at  Aldershot  which  is  dustless,  so  that 
the  dust  cannot  worry  the  poor  soldiers  who  are  lying  in  the  hos- 
pital. The  total  thickness  of  my  road,  when  consolidated,  is  a  lit- 
tle over  three  inches. 

Question:  Have  you  noticed  whether  or  not,  with  the  automo- 
biles running  over  your  road,  whether  the  adhesiveness  of  the  rub- 
ber tire  takes  out  particles  of  the  road  material  and  causes  a  disin- 
tegration of  the  road? 

Mr.  Hooley:  I  can  best  answer  this  by  asking  if  you  remem- 
ber the  days  when  you  were  boys  and  played  with  the  old  sucker, 
and  how  you  could  lift  up  a  stone  by  it  and  it  would  hold  it  up. 
The  automobile  is  doing  exactly  the  same  thing  with  the  road.  It 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  145 

sucks  it  out.  Just  at  the  point  of  contact  the  rubber  is  flat  and  you 
can  hear  it  give.  With  my  road  you  cannot  get  any  sucking  action 
out  of  it;  but  where  you  get  a  water-bound  road,  it  has  gone  to 
pieces  in  less  than  a  month,  and  yet  some  people  are  fools  enough 
to  keep  throwing  money  into  it  and  thinking  they  are  making  roads. 
If  I  were  in  the  circumstances  of  the  man  who  made  that  road,  I 
should  have  felt  I  was  doing  very  fair  work  if  I  carried  out  the 
general  practice  that  was  being  carried  out  on  that  road ;  but  I  do 
not  do  it,  because  I  know  it  is  wrong,  and  I  am  thankful  to  say  my 
county  council  have  taken  the  same  line.  They  say :  "Why  waste 
money?  We  do  not  want  to  pay  rates  for  wasting  money."  They 
do  not  keep  their  county  surveyors  to  look  at. 

Question:  I  would  like  to  know  whether  tarmac  can  be  made 
out  of  other  materials  than  slag. 

Mr.  Hooley:  I  have  not  found  any  satisfactory  results  from 
anything  but  slag.  Mr.  Hill  is  going  to  send  me  the  material,  as  I 
said,  to  see  if  I  can  make  it  out  of  that,  and  if  I  can  I  am  going  to 
send  the  result  back.  If  it  will  stand,  the  tar  will  be  as  firm  when 
it  arrives  here  as  when  it  leaves  England.  I  might  say  the  formula 
of  our  slag  is  36.5'6  of  silica,  16.40  of  aluminum,  37.0  of  lime. 

Mr.  Richardson :  We  have  slags  of  the  same  type  and  composi- 
tion through  the  Middle  West,  but  not  out  here;  but  I  may  say  I 
think  we  have  great  hopes  that  we  can  do  out  here  with  your  as- 
phalt on  the  Pacific  Slope  what  Mr.  Hooley  has  done  with  his 
tar,  for  the  reason  that  we  have  'bright  sun  here,  which  warms 
the  rock  through,  and  we  have  no  difficulty  in  the  East  in  getting 
adhesion. 

The  strong  point  seems  to  be  in  the  foundation.  He  puts  %- 
inch  material  on,  and  then  2~y2.,  and  this  is  forced  by  compres- 
sion up  into  the  other.  The  great  difficulty  you  will  find  in  this 
country  is  the  great  cost  of  the  stone.  The  %  material  would  be 
something  extremely  expensive  in  this  country.  Our  crushers 
make  plenty  of  2y2,  ll/2,  and  % ;  but  we  do  not  get  the  %.  But,  as 
I  say,  I  see  great  hopes  for  you  gentlemen  on  the  Pacific  Coast  to 
construct  something  of  that  type,  using  an  asphalt  cement  for  the 
purpose. 

I  wish  to  express  my  personal  thanks  to  Mr.  Hooley  for  what  he 
has  said.  It  has  added  much  to  my  knowledge  of  the  question 


146  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

of  construction  of  a  waterproof  pavement,  and  I  have  no  doubt 
you  have  all  appreciated  it  as  thoroughly  as  I  have. 

Mr.  Lancaster:     As  to  the  kind  of  asphaltic  oil? 

Mr.  Richardson:  The  residual  pitch;  but  you  cannot  get  that 
to  coat  the  stone,  on  account  of  its  viscosity.  Bring  it  down,  by 
adding  just  as  much  oil  as  ordinary  paving  cement.  The  difficulty 
of  heating  stone  artificially  and  coating  it  with  tar  is  that  the  tar 
runs  off  the  stone  and  the  heat  destroys  the  tar,  because  tar  will 
not  stand  high  temperature ;  but  the  asphalt  has  been  heated  to  700 
degrees,  and  a  little  overheating  does  not  damage  it  in  the  slight- 
est degree. 

A  recess  was  then  agreed  upon,  on  motion  of  Judge  Hanford,  to 
give  the  delegates  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  sample  sections 
of  Mr.  Hooley's  roads  and  also  the  pictures  of  the  roads  which  he 
had  constructed. 

After  the  recess  Prof.  Lancaster  showed  some  stereopticon  views 
of  Mr.  Hooley's  road,  which  he,  Mr.  Hill,  and  Mr.  Thomson  had 
ridden  over  on  their  recent  visit  to  England,  after  which  the  dis- 
cussion was  continued. 

Mr.  Richardson:  Referring  again  to  these  roads,  we  have  no 
slag  here,  and  so  we  cannot  use  it.  You  must  take  your  trap  rock, 
which  occurs  all  through  the  state,  and  you  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  coating  it  with  asphalt.  You  could  not  coat  it  with  coal  tar; 
but  with  the  asphalt  there  is  no  danger  of  overheating.  It  has 
been  submitted  to  700  degrees  in  preparation,  so  a  little  extra  heat 
can  do  no  harm. 

Question :    How  high  would  you  heat  it  ? 

Mr.  Richardson:  To  a  temperature  of  350  degrees  without  any 
damage ;  but  you  can  heat  it  hotter.  I  think  there  is  a  great  future 
in  this  part  of  the  world  for  the  construction  of  roads  of  Mr. 
Hooley's  type  with  asphalt,  putting  the  fine  material  first,  and  then 
the  coarse,  and  then  the  fine  material  into  the  voids,  and  thus  have 
a  fine  material  from  the  top  down.  The  only  objection  here  is  the 
cost  involved.  I  was  discussing  with  Mr.  Parker,  of  Massachu- 
setts, a  few  moments  ago,  and  he  said  it  was  quite  a  difficult  thing 
to  get  the  three-eighths  material  at  the  bottom,  and  very  expensive. 
The  only  way  to  arrive  at  the  expense  was  to  keep  traffic  data,  to 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  147 

see  what  it  cost  to  carry  a  ton  a  mile,  and  the  Massachusetts  High- 
way Commission  are  accumulating  these  data.  They  are  construct- 
ing a  road  from  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  on  this  plan  with  as- 
phalt, so  the  state  of  Washington  can  learn  from  Massachusetts 
what  there  is  to  be  learned  in  that  .direction. 

Prof.  Lancaster:  Mr.  Hooley's  road  is  certainly  the  best  we  have 
seen,  and  the  question  that  seems  to  trouble  us  all  is  the  expense; 
but  we  do  not  want  the  people  of  the  state  of  Washington  to  be  dis- 
couraged if  they  were  led  to  believe  that  only  that  kind  of  road  can 
be  made  to  stand. 

Mr.  Richardson:  I  could  have  brought  you  from  New  York  a 
section  of  asphaltic  macadam  road,  and  you  could  have  told  from 
that;  but  the  trouble  is  it  is  expensive.  You  want  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  having  a  plant  for  the  heating  and  coating.  We  can 
do  it  under  the  summer  sun  in  the  East,  and  probably  you  could 
do  it  out  here. 

Mr.  Parker:  I  do  not  know  that  it  is  safe  for  me  to  venture  on 
any  explanation  of  what  we  have  been  trying  in  Massachusetts  at 
present.  We  have  tried  in  the  last  few  years  something  like  two 
hundred  different  experiments  with  different  kinds  of  tar  and  oil, 
and  at  the  present  time  we  are  not  satisfied  with1  any  one  we  have 
tried.  Wre  are  quite  sure  we  can  reduce  the  number  to  a  small  fig- 
ure, because  of  experiments  we  have  made  so  many  have  failed. 
Mr.  Lancaster  has  suggested  that  I  should  say  something  to  you  in 
regard  to  the  Aitkin  machine,  the  spraying  machine  invented  in 
England,  and  used  over  there  for  some  years,  and  which  has  been 
perfected  until  it  has  reached  the  machine  which  we  are  now  hav- 
ing brought  over.  We  have  two  in  Massachusetts,  which  have 
been  in  use  two  or  three  months,  and  as  I  believe  with  very  great 
success.  We  have  found  that  we  can  use  the  heavy  asphaltic  oil 
in  this  machine  quite  as  easily  as  any  combination  of  tar. 

Prof.  Lancaster:  I  believe  in  the  use  of  oil.  The  only  thing  I 
wanted  to  draw  out  of  Mr.  Richardson  was  his  opinion  regarding  it. 
We  have  an  abundance  of  oil  at  low  cost,  and  could  get  seventy  and 
possibly  eighty  per  cent,  asphaltic  oil  at  the  lowest  cost. 

Mr.  Parker:     Heavy  asphaltic  oil  of  that  sort  can  be  used  on 
sand  alone.     At  the  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts,  where  the 
M.R.B.— 11 


148  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

roads  are  made  up  largely  of  sand,  on  account  of  the  cost  of  the 
transportation  of  stone,  and  where  it  is  largely  a  question  of  build- 
ing roads  which  can  be  used  during  the  summer  months,  the  ques- 
tion of  transportation  by  land  was  the  most  serious  one  that  ex- 
isted there.  We  tried  nearly  four  years  ago  to  use  a  heavy  as- 
phaltic  oil  mixed  on  the  ground  with  pure  sand  of  the  Cape,  and 
after  some  year  or  so  of  use,  so  that  the  sand  by  chemical  and  oth- 
er action  could  mix  together,  a  perfectly  satisfactory  sand  road 
to  drive  over  was  the  result.  Of  course,  if  that  could  be  done,  you 
would  have  the  cheapest  road  it  is  possible  to  make,  because  for 
you  here  the  heavy  oil  from  California,  which  you  can  get  at  a  dol- 
lar and  a  quarter  or  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  barrel,  we  have  to  pay  from 
five  to  seven  and  a  half  cents  a  gallon  for.  We  have  tried  the  spraying 
machine  on  the  surface  of  the  road  of  the  macadam  roads  in  the 
following  way :  As  it  comes  on  the  road,  it  feeds  the  tar  into  a 
spray,  which  'distributes,  according  to  the  pressure  applied,  a  gal- 
lon for  from  four  to  nine  or  ten  cubic  yards.  The  effect  of  this  is 
that  the  tar  is  spread  absolutely  uniformly,  and  a  very  thin  coat  is 
very  much  more  effective  and  beneficial  to  the  roads,  when  ap- 
plied under  pressure,  than  the  application  of  tar  or  oil  in  any  other 
way,  and  the  immediate  distribution  of  the  sand  or  gravel  upon 
this  surface,  and  rolled  in  or  not,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  preferably 
rolled  in  with  a  steam  roller,  produces  a  road  which  is  absolutely 
satisfactory.  The  application  of  automobiles  on  this  surface  is  to 
perhaps  tear  it  up  in  places,  and  make  it,  therefore,  unsatisfactory ; 
but  you  overcome  that  by  the  continued  application  of  this,  so  that 
when  you  have  made  two  or  three  applications,  and  the  sand  has 
been  absorbed  by  the  oil  or  tar  applied,  you  can  get  a  thickness  on 
the  surface  of  the  old  road  of  two  or  three  inches  or  more.  The  ex- 
periments we  are  engaged  in  making  at  the  present  time  are  as  to 
whether  it  is  possible  to  take  out  old,  partially  worn  macadam 
roads, 'and  restore  them  to  a  good,  new  surface  that  will  stand  the 
constant  wear  and  tear  of  automobiles  and  other  traffic.  That  is 
what  we  are  in  search  of,  and  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  I  believe  this 
is  one  of  the  remedies  we  are  to  find  satisfactory  and  effective. 
You  can  easily  see  that  oil  put  into  one  of  these  machines  fitted  in 
this  way  will  distribute  the  oil  in  an  absolutely  even  coat  through- 
out. We  have  found  the  application  of  oil  on  a  sand  road,  not  mac- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  149 

adam,  or  hard,  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  even,  because  by  any  means 
you  apply  it,  by  horse  or  otherwise,  you  destroy  the  even  surface  of 
the  road,  and  the  oil  collects  in  the  holes,  which  is  bad  for  the  road, 
not  only  making  it  uneven,  but  unsatisfactory  in  its  final  composi- 
tion. The  present  state  of  our  experiment  with  these  Aitkin  ma- 
chines proves  them  to  be  the  most  promising  machine  we  have  had. 
I  do  not  know  that  Mr.  Hooley  would  agree  with  me.  He  has  a 
different  theory  of  construction,  and  has  been  very  successful ;  but 
it  is  wholly  outside  of  the  practice  of  any  of  the  ordinary  conditions 
in  the  market. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  I  would  like  to  add  a  word  or  two  to  what 
Mr.  Parker  has  said.  We  are  no  doubt  all  of  us  very  much  dis- 
appointed to  find  that  Mr.  Hooley  hesitated  to  speak  of  any  other 
system  of  road  making  than  that  which  he  himself  has  patented. 
There  are  in  England  several  very  successful  systems  of  road  mak- 
ing by  the  use  of  tar.  We  came  from  Paris  to  London  and  from 
London  to  Nottingham  to  examine  Mr.  Hooley's  road,  which,  as 
has  been  said  here,  proved  a  wonderful  surprise  to  us,  and  they 
were  just  as  successful  as  the  samples  here  would  indicate.  Mr.  Hill, 
however,  was  not  satisfied  that  that  was  the  only  kind  of  road  that 
could  be  made.  He  said  he  had  been  round  the  world  too  long  to 
believe  that  there  was  nothing  but  iron  blast  furnace  slag  that 
could  be  coated  with  asphalt  or  tar  and  made  to  adhere,  so,  while 
he  left  me  in  the  North  Country,  he,  with  Mr.  Lancaster,  went  to 
London  to  hunt  up  others.  In  a  few  days  they  called  for  me,  and 
I  went  to  London  to  continue  the  examination  of  the  roads  which 
they  had  discovered,  and  with  which  they  were  very  well  pleased. 
I  spent  two  weeks  in  England,  after  they  left,  examining  this  mat- 
ter, and  as  a  result  of  that  examination  I  am  satisfied  that  what  is 
known  as  the  Gladwell  system  of  road  making  in  England  is  equal- 
ly as  effective,  and  perhaps  more  economical,  than  Mr.  Hooley's, 
except  where  the  slag  is  very  easy  to  be  had.  In  the  Gladwell  sys- 
tem the  base  is  simply  rolled  down,  being  about  four  inches  of  or- 
dinary macadam.  Then  the  Aitkin  machine,  of  which  Mr.  Parker 
has  spoken,  and  of  which  there  were  photographs  thrown  on  the 
wall,  is  run  over  the  macadam,  and  it  is  sprayed  with  a  very  hot  tar, 
which  is  cut  with  about  three  per  cent,  of  linseed  oil.  This  oil 
seems  to  cut  the  tar,  and  makes  it  very  tough  and  viscous,  making 


150  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

it  flow,  covering  a  great  deal  more  ground  than  it  otherwise  would, 
and  being  put  on  very  thin  with  the  linseed  oil  it  has  great  adhesive- 
ness. Then  on  top  of  that  is  put  half  an  inch  of  good  coarse  sand, 
then  the  machine  is  run  over  the  sand,  and  it  is  saturated  with  the 
same  material,  and  then  there  is  a  top  course  of  macadam  laid  on 
and  rolled  into  this  sand.  Now  this  rolling  gives  a  peculiarly  smooth 
surface,  from  the  fact  that  there  is  a  mortar  or  bedding  course  of 
soft  material  between  the  bottom  and  the  top.  When  the  half  inch 
of  sand  has  been  saturated,  the  top  rock  is  laid  on  and  rolled  in,  and 
the  sand  is  driven  into  the  crevices  below  and  rises  above,  so  that 
we  have  a  top  stone  fastened  by  the  asphalt  or  tar  mortar  to  the 
lower  stone,  the  mortar  of  tar  doing  service.  Instead  of  being  on 
top  of  the  roadway,  as  many  people  try  to  put  it,  it  is  between  the 
stones,  and  not  worn  by  the  surface  of  the  wheels,  and  is  slightly  plas- 
tic, so  that,  if  a  stone  is  moved  a  little  in  ordinary  weather,  it  will  bed 
again,  and  the  automobile  appears  to  have  no  evil  influence  upon  it. 
While  I  was  in  England  the  state  of  Washington  ordered  one  of  these 
machines,  and  it  is  now  on  the  way,  and  I  believe  at  present  may  be 
puttering  along  somewhere  in  "Canada.  Perhaps  Mr.  Campbell  has  got 
hold  of  it,  because  it  was  in  his  neighborhood  the  last  time  I  heard  of 
it  on  the  way  to  Seattle. 

Mr.  Campbell:  We  will  let  you  know  how  it  works.  (Laugh- 
ter.) 

Mr.  Thomson:  I  also  went  to  Birmingham,  where  they  have 
laid  many  miles  of  roadway  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Bir- 
mingham in  this  manner,  and  find  it  a  very  great  success,  and  in  a 
recent  letter  which  I  received  from  Mr.  Stilgoe,  the  city  engineer 
of  Birmingham,  he  tells  me  they  are  making  a  number  of  miles  of 
streets  in  Birmingham  in  this  manner  this  year.  They  use  Guern- 
sey granite  for  the  surface,  and  rock  which  they  get  in  the  neigh- 
borhood for  the  base.  They  simply  put  in  from  three-eighths  to 
one-half  inch  of  the  saturated  sand,  and  it  binds  the  top  and  bottom 
together  excellently;  and  Birmingham,  which  is  a  pretty  thrifty 
community,  is  willing  to  spend  a  large  sum  of  money  for  these 
roads.  I  also  visited  other  cities  in  Central  England,  which  are  fol- 
lowing the  same  course,  and  I  have  no  question  but  that  the  stone 
which  we  have  in  the  state  of  Washington,  with  the  asphaltic  oils 
which  we  have,  can  be  bound  together  to  make  nearly,  if  not  equal- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  151 

ly,  as  good  a  road  as  this  of  Brother  Hooley.  I  do  not  want  to 
discourage  Mr.  Hooley  as  to  his  road,  but  he  is  the  father  of  the 
successful -use  of  tar,  and  has  the  misfortune  to  believe  that  his 
children  are  the  only  good-looking  ones  in  England ;  but  we  believe 
we  will  make  as  good  roads  as  they  do  in  England  by  the  use  of  the 
machine  which  we  have  coming  here,  coating  the  under  course, 
saturating  the  binder  course  of  sand,  and  rolling  the  top  course  in- 
to it. 

Mr.  Parker:  I  would  say,  further,  we  have  tried  and  are  now 
trying  such  as  you  describe,  by  applying  the  tar  out  of  this  ma- 
chine directly  on  the  stones,  with  the  sand  on  top,  and  another 
course  on  top,  very  much  as  you  have  already  described  it,  only 
that  the  application  of  the  tar  is  made  by  the  machine,  and  not  the 
ordinary  method  of  application,  and  by  the  continued  application 
you  can  get  as  much  tar  or  oil  as  is  considered  necessary. 

Mr.  Thomson:    What  do  you  put  on  top? 

Mr.  Parker:  We  really  do  not  use  anything,  except,  perhaps,  a 
little  sand  which  has  been  treated  with  asphaltic  oil  to  sweep  into 
the  crevices  to  prevent  the  clay  sifting  in.  It  takes  very  little  to 
fill  the  crevices.  I  do  not  wish  to  take  up  your  time,  but  what  we 
have  discovered  I  am  anxious  to  let  others  know.  It  is  necessary 
only  in  such  cases  as  when  your  oil  or  tar  will  naturally  by  gravi- 
tation work  towards  the  surface.  As  it  comes  up  you  cover  it  with 
sand,  or  often  gravel  or  stone  chips,  and  put  on  as  much  as  the  oil 
will  absorb,  because,  when  the  oil  or  tar  comes  through  enough 
to  be  unpleasant,  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  put  some  more  on.  That 
is  the  whole  solution. 

Question:  Have  you  inspected  the  roads  of  Kentucky?  We 
have  macadam  roads  there. 

Mr.  Thomson:     Yes;  before  you  were  born. 

Question:  I  ask  this,  because  they  have  recently  made  some 
very  good  roads  there,  and  our  construction  now  would  certainly 
be  different  to  what  it  was  when  you  inspected  it. 

Prof.  Lancaster:  Some  three  years  ago  I  saw  the  roads  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  took  some  photographs  of  them,  so  I  am  familiar  with 
what  is  being  done.  Talking  about  the  machine  which  Mr.  Parker 
is  using  in  Massachusetts,  and  which  we  are  going  to  have  here: 


152  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

We  can  put  on  such  a  small  amount  of  oil  or  tar,  and  not  get  any 
excess  on,  but  in  an  even  way.  The  least  anybo.dy  was  able  to  get 
on  the  road  heretofore  has  been  four-tenths  to  half  a  gallon  per 
square  yard  by  the  ordinary  method.  It  would  take  half  a  gallon ; 
using  every  care,  and  having  the  road  clean  and  the  material  hot, 
and  spreading  the  material  on  with  brooms,  it  would  take  at  least 
half  a  gallon  to  the  square  yard.  The  English  have  got  the  best 
results  using  one  gallon  to  six  square  yards,  so  that  you  will  see 
the  great  amount  of  saving  of  material  by  using  the  new  machine. 

Mr.  Parker:  The  oil  or  tar  applied,  I  find  it  is  better  that  it  be 
not  distributed  before  you  get  the  sand  or  gravel  on 

Prof.  Lancaster :  We  thought  we  were  going  to  get  this  machine 
to  Washington  first,  and  had  arranged  for  it ;  but,  when  Sir  Herbert 
Praed  found  the  machine  was  coming  to  the  A.-Y.-P.,  he  said  he 
wanted  to  build  the  best  possible  type,  and  he  sent  Mr.  Parker  our 
machine,  and  made  another  for  us.  (Laughter.) 

Mr.  Parker:  Sir  Herbert  Praed  told  me  that  he  was  afraid  to 
send  the  machine,  because  the  Yankees  would  improve  on  his  pat- 
ents. He  sent  it  to  the  Yankees,  however,  because  he  distrusted 
the  shrewdness  of  you  people  here.  (Another  outburst  of  laugh- 
ter.) 

Mr.  A.  W.  Campbell :  With  reference  to  the  matter  of  using  tar 
and  asphaltum  material  for  making  roads  does  not  remove  the  dust 
nuisance,  which  is  about  as  important  a  question  as  has  come  before 
this  conference.  I  have  been  exceedingly  pleased  with  the  papers 
here,  and  paid  special  attention  to  the  way  of  treating  these  roads, 
and  we  have  had  the  result  of  experience  and  investigation  made  by 
Mr.  Thomson  and  others,  and  it  looks  as  if  we  almost  have  to 
adopt  something  of  this  kind  in  connection  with  the  streets  of  our 
towns  and  cities  and  the  leading  roads  which  are  heavily  traveled 
on  coming  into  large  centers.  It  has  been  a  question  in  my  mind 
as  to  whether  we  are  going  to  be  able  to  afford  the  extra  expense 
of  applying  this  on  the  leading  rural  roads  outside  of  the  city,  and 
it  necessarily  adds  considerable  to  the  cost.  The  dust,  however, 
appears  to  be  almost  unendurable,  even  on  some  of  our  best-con- 
structed stone  roads.  I  have  seen  them  in  our  province  and  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  where  they  have  built  some  of  the  finest  roads 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  153 

on  the  continent  of  America.  The  .dust  nuisance  seems  to  be  al- 
most intolerable,  even  when  they  have  been  experimenting  with  the 
use  of  tar  and  oil  and  asphalt.  The  automobile  seems  to  contribute 
very  much  to  this  nuisance;  but  the  investigations  I  have  made 
prove  that  the  automobile  does  not  create  the  dust.  The  auto- 
mobile simply  raises  the  dust,  which  dust  is  created  by  the  traffic 
— the  hard  tires  upon  the  wheels.  The  broad,  soft  tire  of  the  auto- 
mobile will  not  wear  the  stone,  but  will  pick  up  every  particle  that 
has  been  ground  out  of  the  worn  stone;  but  the  heavy  loads  upon 
the  hard  tires  wear  the  stone  into  dust  proportionate  to  the  quality 
of  the  stone.  If  the  stone  is  tough  the  wear  is  less,  and  if  it  is  soft, 
of  course,  the  wear  is  greater;  but  it  is  the  hard  iron  tire  coming 
into  contact  with  the  stone  that  creates  the  dust.  The  automobile 
passing  over  that  road  lifts  the  dust,  and  removes  what  otherwise 
might  be  a  cushion  between  the  hard  tire  and  the  stone;  but  the 
dust  is  created  by  the  hard  tire.  I  have  seen  many  of  our  most 
excellent  roads  used  extensively  by  heavy  traffic  from  farm  districts 
and  it  seems  impossible  for  us  to  get  an  ordinary  stone  hard  enough 
to  resist  the  traffic,  and  it  appears  to  me  that  one  of  our  chief  du- 
ties now  is  to  study  how  best  to  minimize  the  creation  of  dust.  We 
must  use  the  softer  stones  to  a  very  considerably  extent  until  we 
have  reached  the  time  when  tar,  asphalt,  and  other  such  material 
can  be  adopted  for  the  main  roads  generally ;  and  I  believe  one  way 
of  minimizing  the  wear  on  the  stone  is,  if  possible,  to  increase  the 
width  of  the  hard  tire  of  the  wagon  wheels.  Reduce  the  cause  of 
the  dust,  and  we  will  have  made  one  long  step  towards  removing 
the  dust  nuisance.  Some  scheme  by  which  we  can  induce  the 
people  to  broaden  the  tires  will  reduce  the  wear.  We  make  a  road 
by  using  heavy  rollers  composed  of  broad  wheels,  and  without  that 
we  could  not  properly  construct  a  road.  We  can  also  maintain 
roads  by  carrying  loads  on  broad  tires  resembling  as  near  as  pos- 
sible the  roller.  Keep  the  road  in  repair,  and  remove  the  cause  of 
the  wear  by  increasing  the  width  of  the  tire.  I  think  that  is  one 
very  important  question  for  us  to  consider,  and  it  will  tend  to  re- 
duce and  minimize  the  creation  of  dust. 


154  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


FENCES,  HEDGEROWS,  AND  SHADE  TREES. 

This  paper  was  read  by  Mr.  Harold  Parker,  of  Massachusetts, 
who  in  introducing  the  subject  said: 

I  am  afraid  you  are  getting  more  than  you  expected.  I  was  as- 
signed this  very  interesting  subject,  and  I  wrote  a  short  paper 
treating  the  subject  generally.  Since  I  came  here,  and  have  lis- 
tened to  your  patient  consideration  of  the  matters  that  have  been 
presented  to  you,  and  have  noticed  the  interest  which  you  appear 
to  take  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roads,  it  seems  to 
me  you  really  ought  not  to  be  put  to  any  further  test.  I  think  the 
paper  ought  to  be  laid  on  the  table,  and  you  should  be  allowed  to 
go  now,  and  if  you  say  the  word  the  paper  shall  be  laid  on  the 
table,  and  we  will  close.  (Cries  of  "Read  it.") 

Last  winter  I  read  a  paper  before  the  Governors  of  New  Eng- 
land, and,  the  conditions  of  reading  it  being  bad,  it  being  in  one 
of  the  theaters  of  Boston,  and  I  not  having  read  it  after  writing 
it,  I  had  great  difficulty  in  making  it  out,  and  it  was  declared  in 
some  of  the  press  the  next  morning  that  I  had  not  myself  pre- 
pared the  paper  I  read  the  day  before.  I  should  like  to  say  I  did 
prepare  the  paper,  and  also  prepared  this,  and  if  there  is  any  fault 
to  be  found  it  belongs  to  me  alone.  (Laughter.) 


TREES,  FENCES,  AND  HEDGEROWS. 

BY  HAROLD  PARKER,  MEMBER  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGI- 
NEERS, CHAIRMAN  MASSACHUSETTS  HIGHWAY  COMMISSION. 

In  discussing  the  questions  which  are  indicated  in  the  title  of 
this  paper,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  two  causes  for  the  re- 
sults that  have  followed  man's  effort  to  beautify  and  improve  what 
was  first  done  from  necessity  alone  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, in  order  to  bring  before  you  the  conclusion  which  I  desire  to 
make  plain. 

In  the  first  place,  before  we  can  take  into  account  the  roadside 
trees,  hedgerows,  and  fences,  we  must  consider  that  the  road  it- 
self was  the  first  development  of  the  necessities  of  man.  He  had 
to  have  a  road  which  led  from  one  point  to  another,  not  only  for 
his  own  passage,  but  for  that  of  the  vehicle  which  carried  his 
produce,  or  later  contributed  to  his  pleasure ;  so  that,  in  the  laying 
out  of  highways  as  means  of  transportation  alone,  neither  the  com- 
fort of  those  using  them  nor  the  beauty  of  their  surroundings  was 
considered,  the  aim  of  the  road  builders  being  to  secure  the  easiest 
means  of  getting  from  place  to  place. 

It  is  not  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  this  discussion  that  I  should 
consider  the  location,  construction,  or  maintenance  of  roadways, 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  155 

except  in  so  far  as  the  trees  and  roadside  growths  may  be  either  a 
protection  to  the  road  itself  or  contribute  to  the  comfort  and  happi- 
ness of  those  passing  over  it,  which  is,  to  be  sure,  a  question  of 
some  economic  advantage,  and  therefore  has  a  value  beyond  the 
purely  aesthetic. 

Roads  themselves  have  grown  with  the  growth  and  wealth 
of  population,  and  have  usually  kept  pace  with  such  growth,  and, 
as  the  leisure  and  financial  ability  of  communities  increased,  as 
well  as  the  opportunities  for  improving  their  roadsides,  the  im- 
provement of  the  roads  and  the  beautification  of  the  roadside  sur- 
roundings became  a  sought-for  consummation,  and,  as  civilization 
increased,  a  practical  interest. 

In  this  way  it  may  readily  be  seen  that,  where  population  has 
concentrated  for  economic  reasons,  there  has  gradually  grown  up 
the  desire  for  aesthetic  effects,  as  is  shown  in  the  creation  of  parks 
and  public  reservations  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  people  at  large. 

For  the  same  reasons  the  ornamentation  of  roadsides,  extending 
gradually  into  the  country  from  larger  cities  and  towns,  has  de- 
veloped and  grown  with  the  wealth  of  the  people  themselves ;  so 
that,  as  we  look  at  it  now  in  America,  one  of  the  considerations 
that  is  brought  prominently  to  our  attention,  after  building  the  best 
road  that  we  know  how,  is  the  planting  of  roadside  trees  and  other 
ornamental  growths,  and  the  erection  of  walls  and  fences  that  are 
no  longer  unsightly,  but  which  will  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape  and  the  unconscious  advantage  of  those  traveling  over 
the  road.  This  has  now  become  so  universally  accepted  that  it 
cannot  be  ignored,  even  if  those  persons  who  are  wholly  practical 
consider  it  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  money. 

The  development  of  this  aspect  has,  of  course,  been  different  in 
Europe  than  in  America,  for  there  it  has  been  so  long  and  so  grad- 
ual in  its  advance  that  it  has  attained  in  most  of  the  civilized  coun- 
tries of  Europe  a  finished  result.  There  the  roadside  trees  have 
been  under  intelligent  care  for  generations,  and  produce  on  the 
mind  of  the  traveler  the  most  pleasing  and  salutary  effect,  even  to 
those  so  ignorant  that  they  cannot  appreciate  the  reason  therefor. 

In  France,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  like 
the  people  themselves,  the  results  have  been  largely  of  a  formal 
or  artificial  character.  In  England,  nature  has  been  followed  more 
closely,  so  that  you  get  two  methods  of  beautifying  public  reser- 
vations and  the  space  between  the  traveled  way  and  the  fields  of 
abutting  landowners,  which  have  grown  by  degrees  from  primitive 
conditions  to  the  present  artistic  state. 

In  America  we  have  the  advantage  of  both  these  methods  work- 
ed out  for  our  consideration,  on  which  we  can  improve,  but  which 
do  not  give  us  immediately  the  results  of  trees  of  great  size,  or 
the  finished  appearance  which  comes  through  time  alone. 

To  those  of  you  who  have  driven  horses  or  automobiles  over  the 
ancient  highways  of  Europe,  it  must  be  painfully  apparent  that  in 
comparison  America  suffers,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  our 
older  communities  we  have  been  striving  for  years  to  do  in  a 


156  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

shorter  time  what  has  there  required  many  generations  of  careful 
work  and  study. 

In  almost  all  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  East  in  America  very 
large  sums  of  money  have  been  spent  in  the  acquisition  of  land 
and  the  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs  which  will  thrive  in  their 
respective  localities,  and  in  the  careful  treatrment  of  roadside  con- 
ditions for  many  years,  and  the  results  of  these  intelligent  efforts 
have  been  to  make  such  cities  more  attractive  to  visitors  and  more 
liveable  to  the  inhabitants.  It  makes  the  conditions  of  life  more 
healthful,  and  has  a  tendency  to  improve  the  people  themselves. 

The  city  of  Boston,  in  Massachusetts,  has  expended  over  ten 
million  dollars  within  the  last  twenty  years  in  creating  a  park 
system  for  the  use  and  at  the  expense  of  the  metropolitan  district, 
which,  by  the  care  that  has  been  taken  in  its  development,  has  be- 
come one  of  the  most  attractive  and  charming  of  any  in  the  world ; 
and  this  same  theory  has  been  adopted  in  many,  if  not  all,  of  the 
larger  cities,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  paid  for  out  of  the  public 
purse ;  so  that,  as  I  intimated  in  the  first  of  this  paper,  so  great  has 
the  insistence  of  the  public  become,  that  in  the  treating  of  public 
ways  or  reservations  the  question  of  beauty,  as  it  is  manifested 
through  the  efforts  of  trained  and  skilful  men,  has  become  a  prac- 
tical necessity,  and  the  public  is  entirely  willing  to  take  upon  it- 
self the  cost,  however  great,  of  such  work. 

What  is  true  of  the  parks  and  other  public  reservations  is  true, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  of  the  roadsides  themselves.  It  is  the 
custom  almost  everywhere  to  plant  trees  along  the  sides  of  roads, 
wherever  practicable,  and  to  save  the  natural  growth  on  a  new 
road.  Wherever  the  road  itself  is  improved,  it  is  noticeable  that 
the  landowners  living  along  its  borders  instinctively  improve  the 
appearance  of  their  possessions  in  proportion  to  the  care  that  is 
expended  upon  the  road  and  its  immediate  surroundings. 

In  Massachusetts,  where  the  commonwealth  builds  and  main- 
tains its  main  lines  of  travel,  and  takes  care  of  its  roadsides,  it  is 
observed  that  farms  and  homes,  previously  deserted  for  years,  are 
taken  up,  rebuilt,  and  beautified  everywhere  along  the  borders  of 
the  road.  No  deserted  farms  can  be  found  along  state  highways  in 
Massachusetts.  This,  in  itself,  is  an  argument  sufficient  for  the 
expenditure  of  such  additional  sums  as  may  be  necessary  for  im- 
proving the  roadsides,  as  well  as  the  roadway. 

The  Highway  Commission  of  Massachusetts  is  required,  under 
the  law,  to  plant  useful  and  ornamental  trees  along  the  borders 
of  highways  which  have  been  made  state  roads.  In  order  to  do 
this  intelligently  and  with  the  best  results,  the  Highway  Commis- 
sion has  employed  a  trained  forester,  and  it  has  also  established 
a  nursery,  in  which  are  cultivated  trees  and  shrubs  which  are  suit- 
ed to  all  the  climatic  and  physical  conditions  throughout  the  com- 
monwealth. These  trees  are  planted  in  locations  suited  to  their 
character  and  kind,  and  are  cared  for  under  the  direction  of  the 
forester,  so  as  to  attain  their  most  complete  and  characteristic 
growth. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  157 

Where,  in  the  course  of  the  construction  of  state  highways,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  cuts  through  hills  or  embankments  over  low 
ground,  it  is  the  practice  of  the  Commission  to  protect  and  beautify 
these  cuts  or  fills  by  the  planting  of  vines  or  shrubs  which  conceal 
their  nakedness  and  prevent  their  disintegration.  The  work  of 
the  Commission  along  these  lines  has  produced  its  effect  upon  the 
minds  of  those  living  along  the  roads,  so  that  the  ambition  of  the 
people  to  make  their  places  more  attractive,  by  the  building  of 
more  or  less  ornamental  fences,  the  removal  of  unsightly  accumula- 
tions, and  the  general  well-being  of  their  homes,  has  been  aroused, 
and  t?ie  result  is  encouraging  and  satisfactory. 

It  is  also  to  be  considered  that  trees  and  shrubs  planted  along 
the  roadsides  protect  and  prolong  the  life  of  the  roads,  and  the 
planting  or  preservation  of  low-growing  shrubs  or  bushes  prevents 
the  action  of  winds  in  drying  up  and  removing  the  surface  of  the 
roadway,  which  otherwise  would  lead  to  destruction. 

It  is  very  plain  that,  where  roadways  are  shaded  by  trees,  horses 
will  draw  greater  loads  for  greater  distances,  and  that,  therefore, 
more  may  be  accomplished  than  under  other  circumstances. 

You  will,  of  course,  appreciate  that  in  a  paper  such  as  this  is  it 
is  impossible  to  enlarge  upon  the  method  of  planting  trees  or  other 
plants,  how  it  should  be  done,  or  what  kinds  of  trees  should  be 
used.  Your  conditions  in  Washington  are  so  different  from  ours 
in  the  East  that  what  would  apply  here  would  be  wholly  or  largely 
inapplicable  there. 

It  is  usual  with  us,  for  example,  to  set  out  rock  maples  on  the 
uplands  which  are  exposed  to  severe  winds  or  extreme  climatic 
variations ;  white,  red,  or  pin  oaks  on  less  exposed  hillsides  in  gra- 
velly soils ;  white,  red,  or  pitch  pines  in  sandy  soils,  unprotected 
from  the  sun's  rays ;  elms  on  fertile  bottom  lands ;  and  white  maples 
and  willows  in  swampy  reaches.  Chestnuts  have  not  been  used 
to  any  extent  for  planting,  though  they  become  with  care  very 
large  and  handsome  trees.  They  are,  however,  protected  when 
found  growing  naturally  by  the  roadside.  Other  trees,  such  as 
poplar,  ash,  sycamore,  locust,  etc.,  are  suited  to  certain  locations, 
but  are  not  planted  by  us  to  any  very  great  extent. 

A  great  variety  of  ^native  shrubs,  such  as  cornus  dogwood,  lilac, 
etc.,  are  used  to  give  a  picturesque  effect,  or  as  wind  breaks  in 
exposed  places.  Such  vines  as  blackberry,  upland  cranberry,  low- 
growing  sumach,  etc.,  are  planted  on  slopes  and  banks  to  protect 
them  from  disintegration,  and  to  cover  the  raw  appearance  of  new 
work.  All  these  means  can  well  be  adopted  to  beautify  and  im- 
prove the  sides  of  roads,  and,  from  my  experience,  are  well  worth 
the  outlay  from  any  point  of  view. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill:  With  reference  to  what  Mr.  Parker  has  said 
about  abandoned  farms,  I  believe,  Mr.  Parker,  your  Commission 
authorized  me  to  state  that  in  Massachusetts,  where  stone  improved 


158  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

highways  had  been  placed,  after  careful  investigation  you  found 
an  increase  on  every  150-acre  farm  in  the  annual  rental  value  of 
approximately  $200.  That  is  a  startling  statement,  showing  the 
increased  value  from  improved  highways. 

Questioner:  If  there  is  one  question  more  than  another  in  this 
country  and'  Canada,  it  is  the  fact  of  the  people  leaving  the  farm. 
I  would  like  to  know  if  the  fact  of  the  improving  of  the  roads  under 
the  State  Commission  of  Massachusetts  has  had  the  effect  of  bring- 
ing back  to  the  soil  those  who  had  previously  left  it. 

Mr.  Parker:  I  would  say  in  response  to  that  question  that  the 
building  of  state  roads  and  the  improvement  of  the  highways  in 
Massachusetts  has  had  the  effect,  not  only  of  bringing  back  prac- 
tical farmers,  but  to  bring  back  to  their  old  homes  men  who  had 
been  away  and  made  a  fortune  in  other  businesses.  I  could  name 
to  you  hundreds  of  such  instances,  and  that  where  I  have  known 
deserted  farms  to  exist  as  long  as  I  can  remember  that  now  not  one 
can  be  found  on  a  state  road.  That  is  an  economic  question  of 
value  to  you  all,  and  should  be  considered. 

An  Inquirer :  I  would  like  to  ask  if  the  building  of  the  highways 
has  not  .decreased  taxation  greatly  in  comparison  to  real  valuation. 
I  mean  that  the  improvements  have  so  increased  the  valuation  that 
they  have  lessened  the  taxes  in  proportion. 

Mr.  Parker:  I  think  that  is  absolutely  true,  because  in  most 
cases  the  increase  in  the  taxation  is  nothing,  while  the  increase  in 
valuation  is  very  often  double  or  trebled  within  my  recollection  by 
the  building  of  these  roads. 

An  Inquirer:    Then  virtually  these  roads  do  not  cost  a  red  cent? 

Mr.  Parker:  We  consider  they  do  not  cost  a  cent,  but  increase 
the  value  of  the  commonwealth  materially  every  year.  No  move- 
ment that  we  have  had  in  Massachusetts  has  been  so  popular  as 
that  of  state  roads,  and  I  believe  any  amount  of  money  that  might 
be  asked  for  would  be  given  to  the  Commission  without  reserva- 
tion. I  mean  by  that  that  the  commonwealth  has  an  established 
principle  of  spending  so  much  a  year  on  state  roads,  and  we  as  a 
rule  do  not  believe  in  'increasing  that,  but  think  we  can  spend  from 
half  a  million  to  a  million  dollars  a  year  more  economically  than  a 
larger  amount.  However,  whenever  a  special  appropriation  is 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  159 

asked  of  the  Legislature  for  a  state  road,  I  may  say  it  has  never 
been  refused,  and  I  may  say  that  the  Highway  Commission  of 
Massachusetts  has  now  been  in  existence  long  enough  to  have 
trained  its  men  thoroughly,  and  has  received  the  confidence  of  the 
community  to  such  an  extent  that,  if  towns  and  in  many  cases 
cities  desire  to  spend  money  on  highways,  the  money  will  be  ap- 
propriated, but  only  under  the  condition  that  it  is  spent  under  the 
direction  and  with  the  approval  of  the  Highway  Commission, 
mention  that  as  a  comment  on  the  result  of  this  sort  of  work. 

An  Inquirer:    Do  you  take  charge  of  the  parks? 
Mr.  Parker:     No;  not  under  our  Highway  Law. 

An  Inquirer:  Is  it  not  true  that  before  you  built  those  roads 
you  had  a  bureau  of  abandoned  farms? 

Mr.  Parker:    I  believe  it  was  so. 

Mr.  F.  N.  Godfrey :  I  would  like  to  say  a  little  about  the  condi- 
tions in  our  state.  The  beautifying  of  the  country  roads  in  New 
York  has  added  a  great  deal  to  the  value  of  the  farms.  The  farmer 
who  plants  trees  in  New  York  state  is  allowed  a  certain  amount 
from  his  road  tax.  I  believe  it  is  25  cents  a  tree,  so  that  it  has 
been  an  inducement  to  the  people  to  plant  trees.  One  word  in  re- 
gard to* the  statement  that  Mr.  Parker  has  made  in  regard  to  his 
system.  While  Massachusetts  is  somewhat  of  a  small  state  com- 
pared to  New  York,  we  have  felt  that  it  was  wise  to  adopt  their 
system  of  road  -making  and  road  work  in  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mission and  the  supervision  of  the  roads  by  the  commission. 


PROFESSOR  LANCASTER'S  PAPER  ON  "BOULEVARDS" 
TO  BE  PRINTED. 

In  consequence  of  lack  of  time  it  was  resolved  that  Professor 
Lancaster's  paper  on  "Boulevards"  should  be  printed  in  the  Report 
without  IJeing  read. 

Mr.  M.  O.  Eldredge:  Mr.  Thomson  called  attention  to  the 
Gladwell  system  of  road  building.  We  have  in  the  Government 
Building  a  minature  model  showing  exactly  how  the  Gladwell  road 
is  built.  We  also  have  other  roads  showing  methods  of  using  tar 
in  road  building,  showing  tarmacadam  etc.;  in  fact,  we  have  all 


160 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


'the  standard  types  of  road  construction,  and  I  invite  every  one  to 
come  to  the  Government  Building  and  make  an  inspection  of  these 
roads,  and  I  will  be  glad  to  go  with  you. 

Hon.  C.  H.  Hanford:  I  would  like  to  ask  a  question,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  paper  under  discussion  previous  to  the  last,  as  to 
whether  on  our  sea  level,  where  there  seems  to  be  such  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  pebbles,  where  a  road  could  be  made  along  the  sea- 
shore, about  the  application  of  this  tar  by  machine.  For  instance, 
between  here  and  Tacoma,  along  the  shore,  could  we  get  a  roadbed 
by  that  system? 

Mr.  R.  H.  Thomson:  You  cannot  make  a  roadbed  with  such  un- 
even sizes  as  you  refer  to.  Coarse  sand  would  make  a  good  road, 
but  not  with  sand  mixed  with  pebbles. 

PRESENTATION  TO  MR.  SAMUEL  HILL. 

Hon.  C.  H.  Hanford:  This  forenoon  this  body  voted  to  have  in 
the  records  of  this  Congress  an  expression  of  appreciation  of  the 
very  valuable  services  of  Mr.  Samuel  Hill  in  advocating  and  work- 
ing as  he  has  in  promoting  the  general  welfare  as  affected  by  the 
public  highways,  and  the  committee  appointed  presents  for  adop- 
tion, if  approved,  the  following  resolutions.  I  would  say  that 
these  resolutions,  if  adopted,  are  to  be  in  the  record  of  the  Asso- 
ciation as  an  expression  of  this  body.  Mr.  Godfrey  and  Mr.  Ter- 
race, representing  the  Grangers  and  farmers,  will  have  something 
by  way  of  supplement  to  this  report  after  I  have  read  it: 

RESOLUTIONS. 

Resolved,  by  the  First  Congress  of  American  Road  Builders,  that 
in  Mr.  Samuel  Hill,  President  of  the  Washington  State  Good  Roads 
Association,  we  recognize  a  leader  whose  wise,  energetic,  and  con- 
stant efforts  in  promoting  the  common  welfare  as  affected  by  the 
improvement  of  public  highways  command  our  highest  admiration. 
Sparing  neither  time  nor  money,  with  voice  and  pen,  Mr.  Hill  has 
given  an  impetus  to  a  general  movement  for  better  roads  in  all  the 
states  of  the  American  Union  and  the  provinces  of  Canada,  which 
must  inevitably  produce  benefits  important  and  lasting. 

Resolved,  that  the  thanks  of  this  Congress  are  due  to  him,  and  are 
hereby  expressed,  for  the  many  courteous  attentions  which  Mr.  Hill 
has  bestowed,  and  which  the  members  of  this  association  will  re- 
member with  keen  appreciation. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  161 

Mr.  Terrace  and  Mr.  Godfrey,  on  behalf  of  the  Association,  then 
presented  Mr.  Hill  with  a  handsome  mounted  cane  amid  loud  ap- 
plause. 

Mr.  Terrace  said: 

You  are  now  going  to  receive  proper  treatment.  We,  farmers  of 
the  Pacific  Coast,  present  you  with  this  cane.  May  it  stand  in  the 
rack  for  the  next  forty  years.  May  you  have  no  need  to  use  it;  but, 
every  time  you  look  upon  this  cane,  may  it  encourage  you  to  think 
that  every  farmer  and  his  family  look  upon  you  as  their  great  bene- 
factor in  the  benefits  of  good  roads.  (Applause.) 

Mr.  F.  N.  Godfrey,  of  New  York,  said : 

And,  in  behalf  of  the  people  of  the  Eastern  part  of  this  country, 
and  especially  the  farmers  and  Grange  of  New  York,  I  wish  to 
express  to  you,  in  the  giving  of  this  beautiful  token  of  respect  from 
the  delegates  at  this  convention,  their  thanks  and  the  thanks  of  the 
people  of  the  East  in  what  you  have  done  towards  the  building  up 
of  this  great  industry  and  the  furnishing  to  the  people  of  the  coun- 
try a  method  of  transportation  which  will  aid  the  farmers  in  get- 
ting in  closer  touch  with  the  people  in  the  city.  There  should  be 
no  gulf  between  the  country  and  the  city  (cheers),  and  I  believe 
that  the  efforts  you  are  making  are  a  great  step  in  this  direction. 
I  believe  that  the  time  will  come  when  the  country  and  the  city  will 
be  one.  (Cheers.) 

Mr.  Samuel  Hill,  who  was  received  with  loud  applause  and  was 
visibly  affected,  said : 

I  am  afraid  I  am  going  to  have  to  use  this  cane  before  I  sit  down. 
It  has  been  a  good  many  years  since  I  have  seen  a  cane  in  the  hands 
of  the  authorities,  and  I  was  somewhat  embarrassed  when  they  ap- 
proached. I  also  remembered  that  perhaps  my  declining  years 
attracted  their  attention,  and  they  thought  that  something  was  nec- 
essary for  my  support.  But  there  is  something  necessary  for  my 
support,  and  that  is  the  cordial  co-operation  and  sympathy  of  you 
all,  and  that  I  have  had.  It  has  been  more  than  a  duty,  it  has  been 
a  pleasure,  to  work  in  this  movement.  The  first  thought  that  I  had 
when  I  began  it  was  for  the  man  that  lived  on  the  soil,  and  it  has 
not  been  out  of  my  mind  since.  If  I  should  tell  you  the  pleasure  I 
have  had  in  associating  with  men  like  Judge  Hanford,  Mr.  Lan- 
caster, Mr.  Thomson,  Mr.  Landes,  and  others  I  could  name,  you 
would  think  everything  was  worth  while  to  be  with  these  men  and 
to  have  their  confidence.  I  told  Mr.  Parker  and  Mr.  Hooley  and 
the  other  distinguished  men  who  have  come  here ;  in  New  York 
I  told  Mr.  Godfrey,  Mr.  Richardson,  and  Mr.  Powers  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  citizenship  of  this  state — that,  while  we  had  great  pos- 
sibilities and  great  assets  in  the  wealth  of  the  state,  the  best  thing 


162  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

we  had  was  in  the  character  of  the  men  that  composed  the  citizen- 
ship of  this  state.  I  cannot  turn  in  any  direction  but  what  I  find 
men  who  have  aided  in  this  work.  There  are  some  men  who  have 
not  done  much  talking,  like  Mr.  Cheasty,  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  a 
great  many  others ;  but  I  want  to  say  to  you  all  that  the  only  rea- 
son we  are  going  to  have  here  in  our  own  state  the  nucleus  of  a 
movement  which  is  being  nursed  and  developed  all  over  the  United 
States  and  all  over  Canada,  our  near  neighbor,  by  the  men  who  are 
here  to-day  and  other  men  who  sympathize  but  could  not  come,  is 
because  of  the  genius  and  spirit  of  the  people  on  this  continent,  who 
do  not  wait  always  for  governmental  help  or  aid,  but  who  try  to 
help  themselves ;  and  when  the  State  Commission  gave  us  here  this 
building  for  this  purpose,  and  when  the  wise  Board  of  Regents 
established  in  this  University  a  chair  of  Highway  Engineering,  a 
step  was  taken  forward.  Once  they  tried  to  build  roads  by 
enforced  labor;  then  they  tried  to  build  them  for  military  pur- 
poses ;  but  what  the  American  people  are  trying  to  do  to-day  is  to 
build  roads  on  sentiment  and  for  commercial  reasons — to  build 
roads  so  that  they  will  help  every  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  all  the  people  of  both  countries. 

I  cannot  tell  you  how  pleased  I  was  that  all  these  men  laid  aside 
their  duties,  and  they  are  all  busy  men,  and  came  here ;  how 
pleased  I  was  that  the  Governor  of  every  state  and  every  province 
on  this  continent  wrote  letters  and  sent  accredited  delegates.  It 
has,  indeed,  been  a  great  pleasure,  and  the  results  of  this  conven- 
tion, I  think — I  know — will  be  lasting. 

I  am  very  glad  to  be  here.  I  am  very  much  touched.  (Loud 
applause.) 

RESOLUTIONS. 

It  was  moved,  seconded,  and  unanimously  carried:  THAT  a  vote 
of  thanks  be  tendered  to  the  gentlemen  who  had  made  addresses 
and  read  able  papers  before  the  Convention. 

It  was  moved  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Powers,  seconded,  and  unanimously 
carried:  THAT  the  thanks  of  the  delegates  to  the  Washington  State 
Commission  be  tendered  for  the  courtesies  extended  to  this  Con- 
gress. 

PERMANENT  ORGANIZATION. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Powers: 

It  has  been  suggested  that  a  permanent  organization  should  be 
formed,  and  as  the  time  is  too  short  to  consider  the  matter  here  at 
this  meeting,  I  will  offer  a  resolution  that  a  committee  of  not  less 
than  nine  be  appointed  by  the  chair  to  consider  the  matter  of  per- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  163 

manent  organization  and  report  some  time  between  now  and  to- 
morrow before  final  adjournment. 

Mr.  F.  N.  Godfrey:     I  will  second  that. 

Judge  Hanford: 

I  think  it  would  be  difficult  to  make  a  comprehensive  report  as 
soon  as  to-morrow,  and  I  would  move,  in  amendment :  THAT  the 
committee  be  authorized  to  take  suitable  action  to  perfect  perma- 
nent organization,  and  at  its  discretion  to  call  a  meeting  of  dele- 
gates from  all  the  states  and  provinces  represented  here. 

The  mover  and  seconder  of  the  motion  accepted  the  amendment, 
which  was  accordingly  put  to  the  meeting  and  carried. 

It  was  moved,  seconded,  and  carried  by  a  rising  vote  that  Mr. 
Samuel  Hill  should  be  the  president  of  the  permanent  organization. 

The  following  committee  on  permanent  organization  was  then 
appointed  by  the  chair: 

E.  L.  Powers,  Chairman, 
R.  H.  Thomson, 

F.  N.  Godfrey, 
A.  W.  Campbell, 
Clifford  Richardson, 
Samuel  Hill, 

J.  C.  Lawrence, 
A.  N.  Johnson, 
Harold  Parker. 

Mr.  W.  B.  George  of  Montana: 

We  have  in  our  state  the  great  National  Park,  and  we  appreciate 
the  fact  that  men  have  come  here  to  Seattle  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  that  the  state  of  Washington  has  set  an  example  for  all 
other  Western  states,  and  we  want  to  come  and  visit  you,  and  are 
ready  to  come.  This  question  of  the  improvement  of  the  roads  is 
growing,  and  I  think  we  should  get  the  information  which  we  have 
obtained  here  to  the  people.  Every  organization  that  is  making 
machinery  for  roads,  every  automobile  club,  every  member  of  Con- 
gress, and  every  one  interested  in  the  government  of  each  state', 
every  paper  should  be  distributed  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
people  should  become  aware  of  the  fact  that  this  question  of  road 
improvement  is  the  great  enlightening  question  of  this  country, 
because  it  will  make  the  farmer's  land  double  and  treble  its  present 
value.  I  have  in  a  small  way  prepared  a  road  which  has  caused  the 
land  to  increase  400  per  cent.,  and  I  will  tell  you  that  I  appreciate 
the  fact  that  the  good  roads  will  bring  the  boys  from  the  farm  into 
the  church  and  school,  and  will  develop  the  brains  of  the  rising 
generation.  I  was  talking  to  a  lady  to-day  in  Seattle,  and  she  said: 
"The  road  question  is  a  great  question."  Every  farmer  appreciates 
M.R.B.— 12 


164  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

that.  We  want  to  put  into  this  thing  the  enthusiasm  of  our  money. 
Let  us  make  the  coming  Congress  the  greatest  ever  held.  Look  at 
irrigation.  I  want  to  say  I  secured  this  for  Billings.  We  adver- 
tised six  months  ahead.  We  have  got  half  a  dozen  stenographers 
and  newspaper  writers  at  work,  and  will  make  it  as  big  as  any  Dry 
Congress  held  in  the  country. 

Mr.  Hill  has  been  doing  world-wide  philanthropic  work.  He  has 
been  giving  up  something  to  make  things  better  than  when  he  came 
here.  I  want  to  leave  the  country  I  live  in  better  than  when  I  came 
into  it.  That  is  the  spirit  that  is  making  the  West.  Progress  is 
catching.  A  man  cannot  come  and  see  them  tearing  down  the  hills 
and  making  roads,  (for  it  is  phenomenal  what  they  are  doing  here) 
without  being  greatly  impressed.  I  would  not  doubt  to  see  a  million 
people  here  in  Seattle  in  a  very  short  time. 

Coming  to  this  Congress  has  been  an  education  in  itself,  and  we 
want  in  some  way  to  get  this  information  before  the  people,  edu- 
cating the  people  in  this,  with  a  view  to  making  it  world-wide  and 
interesting  all  in  this  great  movement. 

Professor  Lancaster: 

I  know  it  is  the  intention  of  Mr.  Hill  to  have  the  full  proceedings, 
together  with  all  papers,  printed.  There  are  a  good  many  papers 
which  have  not  been  read,  from  the  fact  that  we  did  not  have  the 
time,  and  these  papers,  many  of  them  most  excellent  papers,  will 
be  printed  along  with  the  proceedings.  I  think  it  is  Mr.  Hill's 
intention  to  have  each  official  delegate  presented  with  a  copy,  and 
also  to  print  other  reports  which  can  be  had  for  practically  the  cost 
of  printing.  I  think  that  is  his  purpose  as  nearly  as  I  am  able  to 
inform  you. 

CONVICT  LABOR. 

As  Washington  State  has  been  referred  to  as  utilizing  convict 
labor,  it  would  doubtless  be  interesting  for  you  to  know  how  it  was 
brought  about. 

I  think  three  years  ago  the  subject  was  first  broached,  as  I 
remember  it,  when  it  was  spoken  of  at  our  state  meeting  at 
Yakima,  and  the  committee  retired  and  discussed  the  question  as 
to  whether  or  not  it  should  be  printed,  because  they  feared,  when 
it  was  spoken  of,  that  the  labor  unions  would  oppose  it ;  but  we 
decided  to  press  forward  and  present  the  question  fairly  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  state,  and  it  was  mentioned  often  in  our  road  meetings, 
and  it  was  finally  decided  to  take  thirty  men  out  of  the  penitentiary 
and  carry  them  into  a  central  part  of  the  state.  The  men  were 
selected  at  random,  and  we  built  a  temporary  stockade,  and  put  the 
men  in,  and  worked  them  without  shackles.  The  men  were  worked 
in  building  a  road  where  they  used  dynamite,  blasting  the  rock  and 
doing  such  work  as  hard  labor  would  do.  They  saved  the  state  a 
little  more  than  $5,000  in  building  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of  road, 
and  the  result  was  we  took  photographs  of  these  men  and  used 
them  before  the  Legislature,  and  secured  from  the  Legislature 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  165 

$124,000  for  putting  in  four  large  rock  crushing  plants.  Machinery 
for  the  four  plants  has  been  purchased,  and  we  are  using  the  best  kind 
of  engine,  and  when  these  four  plants  are  in,  as  they  will  be,  we  will 
have  the  largest  plant  for  supplying  rock  of  any  state  in  the  Union, 
even  ahead  of  what  Illionis  is  doing,  and  crushing  1,500  cubic  yards 
a  day  with  prison  labor. 

PRINTING  PROCEEDINGS. 

Judge  Hanford: 

The  subject  of  the  publication  and  distribution  of  the  record  of 
this  Congress  is  an  important  one,  and  should  be  treated  in  a  prac- 
tical way.  I  believe  it  is  practicable  to  find  ways  and  means  of 
meeting  the  cost  of  publication,  and,  instead  of  having  simply  a 
copy  for  each  delegate  here,  to  have  them  printed  in  a  way  that 
they  can  be  handled  and  get  into  the  hands  of  the  many  people  who 
will  appreciate  them. 

I  move  that  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed  by  the  chair  on 
the  publication  of  the  reports  of  this  Congress,  to  devise  ways  and 
means  for  meeting  the  cost,  and  to  superintend  the  publication  and 
distribution  of  the  reports  of  the  Congress,  including  the  papers 
read  and  the  discussions. 

The  motion  was  seconded  and  unanimously  adopted,  and  the 
following  committee  was  appointed  by  the  chairman : 

Samuel  Hill,  Chairman, 
Hon.  C.  H.  Hanford, 
R.  H.  Thomson. 


ADJOURNMENT. 

The  Congress  then  concluded  their  Seattle  sessions,  and  on  Wed- 
nesday night  the  delegates  to  the  Good  Roads  Convention  made  a 
trip  to  Victoria,  B.  C.,  as  the  guests  of  Mr.  Samuel  Hill.  Leaving 
Seattle  about  midnight,  they  reached  Victoria  in  the  early  morn- 
ing, and  proceeded  to  the  Empress  Hotel,  where  luncheon  was  par- 
taken of.  Mr.  Hill  had  made  arrangements  for  a  tally-ho  ride 
round  the  city  and  through  the  parks ;  but  Hon.  Richard  McBride, 
Premier  of  British  Columbia,  with  his  natural  courtesy,  insisted  on 
providing  automobiles  for  the  entire  party.  After  viewing  the 
many  beauties  of  Victoria,  the  return  trip  was  made  to  Seattle  at 
4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon;  dinner  being  served  on  board. 

The  final  business  of  the  Congress  was  done  on  this  trip ;  the 
most  important  feature  being  the  appointment  of  a  president,  vice 


166  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

president,  and  secretary  of  the  permanent  organization.  It  was 
unanimously  resolved  that  Samuel  Hill,  Hon.  James  H.  MacDon- 
ald,  and  E.  L.  Powers  should  be  president,  vice  president,  and  sec- 
retary, respectively,  and  the  committee  of  nine  members  which  was 
appointed  in  Seattle  was  elected  a  permanent  executive  commit- 
tee, of  which  Mr.  Samuel  Hill  should  be  chairman. 

It  was  also  moved  that  President  Hill  should  appoint  a  subcom- 
mittee of  three  to  formulate  a  plan  of  permanent  organization, 
to  name  the  organization,  and  to  draft  a  constitution  and  by-laws, 
to  be  submitted  to  the  executive  committee.  This  committee  was 
nominated  by  the  President  as  follows :  E.  Iv.  Powers,  of  New 
York,  Chairman;  A.  W.  Campbell,  of  Toronto,  Ontario;  and  J.  N. 
Godfrey,  of  New  York. 

The  following  resolutions  were  unanimously  adopted  by  the  Con- 
gress. 

THAT  a  vote  of  thanks  be  tendered  to  Premier  McBride,  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  for  the  courtesies  extended  to  the  members  of  the 
Congress  while  in  Victoria. 

THAT  a  vote  of  thanks  be  tendered  to  the  King  County  Good 
Roads  Association  for  the  courtesies  extended  to  the  delegates,  and 
also  to  the  press  of  Seattle  for  the  way  in  which  they  reported  and 
handled  the  Congress,  and  for  the  treatment  which  the  delegates 
received  at  their  hands. 

The  arrangement  of  the  time  and  place  at  which  the  next  meet- 
ing should  be  held  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Executive  Commit- 
tee. 

The  First  Annual  Congress  of  American  Road  Builders  then  ad- 
journed after  a  most  successful  convention. 


APPENDIX 


[The  following  Papers  are  here  printed  as  a  part  of  the  foregoing 

Proceedings.] 


ORGANIZATION  FOR  CONSTRUCTION  OF  WAGON 

ROADS. 

BY  JNO.  F.  STEVENS. 

Syllabus. 

Organization — relation  to  the  work. 

Organization — for  wagon  roads,  compared  with  railroad. 

Organization — properly  defined. 

Relation  of  working  force  to  finances. 

Necessity  for  purely  business  methods. 

Natural  division  of  the  work. 

Difficulty  of  getting  experienced  men. 

Necessity  for  best  possible  supervision. 

Outline  of  a  typical  organization. 

Necessity  for  strong  executive  head. 

Characteristics  such  head  should  possess. 

Roster  of  suggested  organization. 

Description  of  general  duties  of  officers. 

Great  importance  of  proper  care  of  laboring  force. 

Size  and  detail  of  organization  to  depend  on  amount  and  character 

of  work. 

Probability  of  Commission. 
General  remarks. 

Organization  for  Construction. 

Organization  is  the  keynote  which  must  be  struck,  to  insure  the 
successful  execution  of  any  construction  project  which  involves  the 
expenditure  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  is  second  to  no  other  fac- 
tor, even  that  of  finance,  in  determining  the  final  results.  It  is  gen- 
erally easier  to  provide  money  to  cover  the  cast  of  a  legitimate 
undertaking  than  it  is  to  properly  supervise  its  expenditure,  and  to 
be  certain  that  none  of  it  is  wasted  by  careless  and  inefficient 
methods,  or  lost  through  intentional  dishonesty.  The  stockholder, 
whether  the  state  or  a  private  individual,  in  communal  or  corporate 
association,  has  the  legal  and  moral  right  to  know  that,  as  far  as 
human  skill  can  provide,  the  finished  work,  as  turned  over  to  him 
as  its  owner,  represents  every  dollar  which  has  been  advanced  by 
him,  and  is  the  same  in  total  amount  of  property,  simply  trans- 
M.R.B.  (167) 


168  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

muted  into  a  different  form,  through  the  alchemy  of  brains 'and 
energy. 

The  organization  of  executive,  supervising,  and  laboring  forces 
to  build  wagon  roads,  especially  in  states  or  communities  where  no 
systematic  efforts  for  such  ends  have  ever  existed,  is,  in  some 
respects,  more  difficult  of  accomplishment  than  to  create  an  organ- 
ization for  the  construction  of  other  large  works,  notably  railroads. 
In  the  case  of  the  latter,  there  is  generally  a  parent  company,  a 
going  concern,  with  its  existing  force  of  experienced  engineers  and 
technical,  practical  experts,  which  by  expansion,  modification,  and 
some  minor  changes  can  readily  be  made  into  a  trained,  efficient 
machine,  every  component  part  of  which  is  fitted  for  the  particular 
duty  to  which  it  may  be  assigned ;  so  that  the  too  often  costly  con- 
tingency of  "learning  at  the  company's  expense"  is  largely  elim- 
inated, and  the  work  can  proceed  with  economy  and  dispatch. 

An  organization,  as  commonly  defined,  is  a  plan  which  aims  to 
bring  into  systematic  connection  and  co-operation  the  separate 
parts  of  the  whole.  A  true  organization,  in  the  sense  of  and  for  the 
purposes  under  discussion,  covers  wide  ground,  and  possesses  deep 
meaning.  It  means  a  machine,  through  the  perfect  operation  of 
which  the  two  great  governing  factors  in  the  execution  of  work, 
authority  and  responsibility,  can  be  defined  and  exactly  located ;  for, 
without  such  efficiency,  organization,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  will 
be  only  an  empty  word. 

In  considering  the  creation  of  an  organization  suitable  for  hand- 
ling the  construction  of  state  roads,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the 
work  is  to  be  taken  up  as  construction,  and  that  the  necessary  finan- 
cing has  been  done,  and  that  the  requisite  funds  will  be  in  hand  to 
meet  current  expenditures.  In  other  words,  the  relation  of  the  con- 
structing forces  to  the  financial  part  of  the  enterprise  will  be  to 
supervise  the  expenditure  of  the  funds  and  to  properly  account  for 
the  same.  While  the  work  of  the  financier  and  that  of  the  engineer 
is  generally  considered  to  be  entirely  different  in  character,  it  is 
very  true  that  they  are  closely  allied,  and  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
each  need  and  must  have  the  intelligent  co-operation  of  the  other, 
to  make  a  success  of  the  work  as  a  whole. 

When  a  community,  or  a  state,  goes  into  the  business  of  road 
making,  it  should  place  itself  on  exactly  the  same  basis  as  a  private 
firm  or  corporation  undertaking  similar  work,  if  it  expects  econom- 
ical results. 

Every  consideration,  excepting  the  single  one  of  strict  business 
procedure,  should  be  eliminated.  Politics,  temporary  expedience, 
and  local  prejudice  towards  either  sections  or  individuals  should 
have  no  place  in  the  organization  or  in  the  plans  for  the  work.  The 
only  qualifications  of  the  personnel  of  the  force  should  be  those  of 
technical  and  business  ability,  coupled  with  strict  integrity  and 
honesty  of  purpose. 

The  actual  work  of  road  construction  naturally  divides  itself  into 
two  parts — the  purely  technical,  and  the  commercial  or  business. 
The  former  should  be  supervised  and  executed  only  by  trained 
experts,  naturally  civil  engineers;  and  this  part  is  usually  by  far 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  169 

the  easier  of  the  two.  The  locating  of  the  lines  of  the  road,  gov- 
erned, of  course,  by  the  controlling  conditions  in  each  case,  the  fix- 
ing of  the  standards,  and  the  designing  of  the  separate  structures 
which  go  to  make  up  the  complete  whole,  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter,  but  one  in  which  only  trained  judgment  and  experience 
should  be  employed. 

The  chief  difficulty  will  be  in  finding  men  who  have  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  other  branch  of  the  work.  We  have  lagged  so  far 
behind  in  the  matter  of  scientific  road  making,  it  is  doubtful  if  in 
all  the  United  States  there  are  ten  men  who  can  truthfully  be  said 
to  know  in  every  detail  how  to  build  a  piece  of  thoroughly  first- 
class  wagon  road.  This  is  a  broad  statement,  and  may  be  chal- 
lenged ;  but  it  is  the  candid  belief  of  the  writer  that  it  is  not  far 
from  the  truth.  Our  conception  of  what  constitutes  good  roads  is 
lamentably  deficient.  But  no  class  of  men  on  earth  are  more  capa- 
ble of  intelligent  expansion  in  ideas  and  knowledge  than  are  our 
American  civil  engineers ;  so  that,  as  conditions  arise  and  crises 
develop,  we  can  feel  assured  the  right  men  will  come  forward  to 
meet  them. 

The  execution  of  the  thousand  and  one  details,  every  one  of 
which  should  be  under  the~eye  of  thoroughly  competent  business 
and  executive  superintendents,  is  a  matter  of  all  importance.  It  is 
not  enough  to  know  what  a  gang  of  laborers  are  receiving  for  a 
day's  work,  or  that  they  are  being  employed  the  agreed  hours.  The 
party  in  direct  charge  must  know  personally,  that  their  efforts  are 
being  intelligently  put  forth,  that  there  is  no  lost  motion,  and  that 
the  state  is  getting  as  near  100  cents  as  possible  for  every  dollar  it 
is  putting  out,  and  this  he  can  only  know  excepting  as  he  has  prac- 
tical experience  and  possesses  that  rarest  of  all  faculties,  good  com- 
mon sense. 

And  this  very  careful  supervision  must  run  clear  through  from 
bottom  to  top,  from  the  lowest  gang  foreman  to  the  Chief  Engineer 
or  the  supreme  head.  The  complete  whole  will  be  no  better  or 
worse  than  have  been  the  separate  details,  and  it  should  be  borne 
always  in  mind  that  no  money  is  more  wisely  expended  than  for 
ample,  intelligent  supervision.  And  here  is  where  officials  of  com- 
munities or  states  are  liable  to  fall  into  error,  through  lack  of  ex- 
perience and  a  possible  feeling  that  ignorant  adverse  public  criticism 
will  follow.  A  railway  company  knows  that  to  secure  the  best  pos- 
sible supervising  talent,  and  to  pay  well  for  the  same,  is  a  wise  pol- 
icy. The  state  must  recognize  the  same  truth,  and  act  accordingly, 
or  results  will  not  justify  expenditures,  and  only  disappointment 
will  be  the  outcome.  The  days  of  miracles  have  passed,  and  it  is  not 
humanly  possible  that  the  conduct  of  a  great  and  important  work — 
one  involving  such  a  multiplicity  of  details,  and  on  which  the  fierce 
light  of  criticism  is  sure  to  beat  strongly — can  be  successfully  car- 
ried out  without  throwing  every  safeguard  around  it  that  time  and 
experience  have  proven  to  be  necessary. 

The  amount,  character,  distribution,  and  general  conditions  will, 
of  course,  necessarily  modify  in  size  and  detail  the  organization  and 
methods  best  fitted  to  carry  out  any  piece  of  construction  work. 


170  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

Still  the  same  general  principle  should  run  through  each,  and  the 
effort  should  be,  as  noted  above,  to  locate  authority  and  respon- 
sibility. Below  the  writer  has  outlined  a  skeleton  organization, 
which  may  be  contracted  to  cover  a  small  undertaking,  or  expanded 
to  almost  any  extent  necessary  to  cover  a  very  large  one.  The 
main  points  to  be  considered  are  simplicity  and  directness. 

It  is  based  on  the  theory  that  much,  if  not  all,  of  the  actual  work 
of  road  construction  will  be  done  by  what  is  generally  called  "day- 
labor";  that  is,  the  state  will  deal  directly,  through  its  engineers 
and  agents,  with  the  actual  laboring  force,  instead  of  committing 
the  execution  of  the  work  to  contractors,  either  by  unit  prices  or 
by  lump  sum,  either  by  mile,  section,  or  as  an  entirety.  Whether 
such  a  course  is  wisest  does  not  enter  into  the  particular  phase  of 
the  question  under  consideration,  and  such  question  can  only  be 
decided  in  each  individual  case,  when  all  the  factors  are  fully  devel- 
oped and  considered. 

To  premise:  There  should  be  a  strong  executive  head,  with 
power  vested  in  it  (or  him)  to  plan,  direct,  and  execute,  to  the 
extent  of  and  under  the  law,  all  work,  in  general  and  detail,  which 
is  provided  shall  be  done  by  such  law,  and  its  (or  his)  authority 
should  be  subordinate  to  no  one,  excepting  the  duly  constituted 
executive  head  of  the  state.  Whether  this  power  be  a  Chief  Engi- 
neer or  a  Commission  is  a  debatable  question.  Personally  the 
writer,  from  his  experience,  and  perhaps  somewhat  from  his  train- 
ing, believes  in  the  one-man  power,  and  that  power  the  Chief 
Engineer. 

Such  a  man  should  be  big  enough,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  to 
initiate  and  supervise,  not  only  the  technical  features  involved  in 
the  project,  but  also  to  ably  direct  the  general  business  details;  in 
other  words,  he  should  be,  not  only  a  capable  road  engineer,  but 
also  a  first-class  business  man.  He  is  the  man  who,  more  than  all 
others,  will  be  held  responsible  for  results,  and  he  should  not  be 
hampered  by  any  attempted  division  of  authority.  There  are  such 
men,  and  they  can  be  had  by  paying  the  price,  and  they  are  a  good 
bargain. 

A  roster  of  the  officers  and  agents  of  such  an  organization  would 
appear  about  as  follows : 
Chief  Engineer, 
Chief  Clerk, 
Accountant, 
Paymaster, 
Purchasing  Agent, 
Draftsman, 

Principal  Assistant  Engineer, 
Resident  Engineer, 

Assistant  Engineer, 
Instrument  Men, 
Inspectors, 
General  Foreman, 

District  Foremen, 
Gang  Foremen. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  171 

To  explain:  To  the  Chief  Engineer,  as  the  responsible  head, 
would  report  directly :  A  Chief  Clerk,  who  would  have  charge  of 
all  clerical  matters,  and  who  would  be  the  right  hand  of  the  Chief 
Engineer,  in  all  office  and  outside  detailed  matters  not  covered  by 
other  enumerated  officials.  All  bills,  pay  rolls,  vouchers,  etc.,  orig- 
inating on  any  part  of  the  work,  would  pass  through  his  hands 
before  going  to  the  Chief  Engineer  for  his  final  action.  He  would 
be  provided  with  such  clerical  help  as  from  time  to  time  might  be 
found  necessary. 

The  Accountant  would  examine  and  check,  not  only  from  a  cler- 
ical, but  also  from  a  legal,  point  of  view,  all  accounts,  rolls,  or 
vouchers  calling  for  the  disbursement  of  funds,  and  his  approval 
would  be  necessary  before  any  funds  could  be  disbursed.  He 
should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  workings  of  the  State 
Auditor's  office,  so  that  all  construction  accounts  would  be  properly 
distributed,  in  order  to  harmonize  them  with  the  general  features 
of  the  state's  bookkeeping. 

The  duties  of  the  Paymaster  would  be,  as  the  title  indicates :  He 
should,  either  directly  or  through  his  subordinates,  disburse  all 
funds,  but  only  on  duly  approved  rolls,  vouchers,  or  other  proper 
form  of  indebtedness.  He  should,  of  course,  as  well  as  all  his  men 
handling  cash  or  its  equivalent,  be  under  approved  surety  bond. 

The  Purchasing  Agent  would  buy  all  material  used  in  road  mak- 
ing proper,  also  all  commissary  outfit  or  miscellaneous  supplies 
needed  in  any  department,  and  such  purchases  only  be  made  upon 
regular  requisitions  duly  approved  by  the  proper  officer,  and  such 
requisitions  should,  excepting  in  cases  of  extreme  emergency,  go 
through  the  Chief  Engineer's  office.  He  would  also  check,  for 
amounts  and  prices,  all  bids  and  invoices  up  to  the  Chief  Engineer. 

The  Draftsman  would,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  Engi- 
neer, prepare  all  final  maps  and  profiles,  all  standard  plans  of  struc- 
tures, and  would,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  the  custodian  of  all  orig- 
inal notes  of  surveys,  cross-sections,  or  other  data  relative  to  the 
engineering  features  of  the  work,  indexing  and  classifying  same  in 
proper  shape  for  ready  reference,  and  also  to  turn  over  as  a  part  of 
the  state  records,  on  the  completion  of  the  work. 

The  Principal  Assistant  Engineer  would  be  the  right-hand  man 
of  the  Chief  Engineer  in  all  engineering  and  outside  work,  and 
should  be  second  only  to  him  in  ability,  experience,  and  capacity, 
and,  as  nearly  as  possible,  should  be  qualified  to  act  in  place  of  the 
Chief  Engineer,  in  case  of  the  latter's  absence  or  incapacity,  from 
any  cause.  He  should  have  direct  and  absolute  authority  over  the 
Resident  Engineers,  and,  through  them,  over  all  subordinate  engi- 
neers and  other  assistants,  down  to  the  lowest  Gang  Foreman. 

Practically  all  of  his  time  should  be  spent  in  the  field,  directing, 
guiding,  and  advising,  not  only  as  to  the  general,  but  as  to  detailed, 
features  of  the  work,  whenever  and  wherever  such  assistance  might 
be  needed.  He  should  be  provided  with  ample  and  proper  means 
for  transportation,  to  enable  him  to  quickly  and  thoroughly  keep 
himself  in  constant  touch  with  every  part  of  the  work,  and  thus,  by 


172  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

his  knowledge  and  experience,  guide  the  subordinate  engineers, 
who  necessarily  would  be  younger  and  less  experienced  men, 
through  the  many  and  oft-recurring  perplexing  problems,  which 
will  continually  arise.  The  value  of  such  a  man  is  inestimable,  and 
the  moral  effect  upon  the  successful  progress  of  the  work  which 
such  an  official  can  produce,  as  the  direct  impersonation  of  the 
Chief  Engineer,  is  incalculable. 

The  work,  when  organized  for  construction,  should  be  divided 
into  sections,  of  a  varying  number  of  miles,  according  to  its  char- 
acter and  importance,  over  each  of  which  should  be  placed  an  As- 
sistant Engineer,  provided  with  the  necessary  Instrument  Men,  In- 
spectors, etc.,  to  enable  him  at  all  times  to  not  only  give  the  neces- 
sary lines  and  levels  to  direct  the  foreman,  but  also  to  keep  in  close 
touch  with  every  detail  as  it  is  being  carried  out.  The  General 
Foreman  should  report  directly  to  the  Assistant  Engineer,  and 
should,  of  course,  have  charge  of  the  Gang  Foremen.  As  a  rule, 
the  sections  should  be  of  such  minimum  lengths  that  the  Assistant 
Engineer  can  personally  visit  all  parts  of  each  at  least  every 
other  day. 

When  the  work  is  of  sufficient  magnitude,  or  is  so  scattered  .as  to 
make  the  visits  of  the  Principal  Assistant  Engineer  somewhat 
infrequent,  a  Resident  Engineer,  having  authority  and  jurisdiction 
over  several  Assistant  Engineers,  can  be  profitably  employed,  thus 
condensing  to  a  reasonable  extent  the  necessarily  detailed  work  of 
the  Principal  Assistant,  and  enabling  the  latter  to  devote  the  requi- 
site time  to  the  more  important  matters.  Any  of  the  above-enumer- 
ated officers,  whose  work  calls  for  such  assistance,  should  be  pro- 
vided with  proper  clerical  force  to  enable  them  to  keep  up  with 
their  current  work  from  day  to  day  and  to  make  correct  returns  at 
the  stated  periods  of  all  reports,  time  sheets,  pay  rolls,  invoices, 
property  accounts,  etc. 

One  important  feature,  in  carrying  out  any  construction  project, 
is  the  housing  and  care  of  the  laboring  force.  The  right  of  the 
laborers  to  comfortable  quarters  and  proper  food  is  unquestionable ; 
but,  while  admitting  this  moral  and  legal  view  of  the  case,  there  is 
a  very  practical  side  to  it  also.  There  is  a  homely  and  true  saying 
that  an  ''army  moves  on  its  belly" — meaning,  of  course,  that  the 
efficiency  of  a  fighting  force  is  proportionate  to  its  commissariat. 
You  have  got  to  feed  and  sleep  a  man  properly,  if  you  expect  the 
full  measure  of  his  services,  whether  mental  or  physical.  Except- 
ing on  large  jobs,  the  Principal  Assistant  Engineer,  by  the  nature 
of  his  duties,  taking  him  constantly  over  the  work,  can,  with  the 
assistance  of  some  Inspectors,  attend  to  this  too  often  neglected 
branch  of  the  service.  But  in  the  case  of  extensive  construction  a 
commissary  official,  reporting  probably  to  the  Chief  Engineer, 
through  the  latter's  Chief  Clerk,  to  attend  to  the  establishing  of 
camps,  the  hiring  and  overseeing  of  all  stewards,  cooks,  etc.,  as  well 
as  exercising  supervision  over  the  character,  distribution,  prepara- 
tion, etc.,  of  all  food  and  camp  supplies,  will  be  found  both  useful 
and  economical. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  173 

Now  the  writer  foresees  the  criticism  which  will  follow  the  sug- 
gestions of  an  organization  as  outlined  above,  as  of  its  being  too 
elaborate  and  expensive,  etc.  In  the  first  place,  as  he  has  expressly 
said,  it  can  be  enlarged  or  contracted  to  fit  the  size  of  the  project; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  attention  is  specifically  called  to  the  abso- 
lute necessity  for  ample  supervision,  a  point  which  it  is  desired  to 
emphasize  particularly.  No  surer  way  can  be  found  to  waste 
money  at  the  bunghole  than  to  try  to  save  at  the  spigot  of  insuffi- 
cient oversight  by  intelligent  men  of  every  class  and  at  every  stage 
of  the  work. 

On  small  works  the  Chief  Engineer  could  probably  dispense  with 
a  Principal  Assistant;  the  Chief  Clerk,  or  his  men,  could  act  as 
Paymaster  or  Purchasing  Agent,  or  both ;  and,  similarly,  other 
consolidations  could  be  made.  So,  also,  in  case  any  considerable 
part  of  the  work  is  carried  out  by  contract,  many  of  the  lower  offi- 
cials, such  as  general  and  gang  foremen,  timekeepers,  etc.,  would 
become  a  part  of  the  contractor's  staff,  and  not  of  the  Chief  Engi- 
neer's. But  the  general  principle  of  localization  of  authority  and 
responsibility  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  as  it  is  the  one  and  all- 
important  feature  of  a  successful  organization. 

Reverting  to  the  necessity  of  an  all-powerful  executive  head :  It 
is  quite  probable  that,  for  reasons  which  seem  good,  the  general 
power  to  direct  the  construction  of  state  roads  may  be  vested  in  a 
duly  authorized  Commission.  Then,  in  such  case,  the  necessity  for 
a  competent  Chief  Engineer  is  none  the  less  great,  only  he  should 
report  to  the  Chairman  of  such  Commission,  instead  of  directly  to 
the  executive  head  of  the  state.  But  he  should  be  given  full  and 
complete  authority  over  all  matters  of  construction,  and  the  Com- 
mission should  confine  its  energies  to  carrying  out  the  general  pro- 
visions of  the  law,  and  not  to  attempt  to  interfere  with  or  direct  the 
affairs,  which  can  only  be  properly  handled  by  the  one  man,  whose 
word  and  decision  in  all  construction  matters  should  be  regarded  as 
final,  and  from  whose  decision  there  should  be  no  appeal,  excepting 
to  the  law. 

The  genius  for  developing  efficient  organization  is  largely  inher- 
ent in  some  men,  and  it  is  very  surprising  how  simple  the  most 
complex  construction  problem  becomes  in  their  hands,  and  how 
smoothly  and  quietly  the  machine  moves  along,  when  it  has  been 
designed  and  built  under  the  watchful  eye  of  the  master  mind. 
And  its  efficiency  and  consequent  value  is  shown  no  more  forcibly 
than  by  the  perfect  fitting  of  each  separate  part — each  officer  and 
employe  knowing  that  to  him  is  given  certain  authority  and  that 
from  him  will  be  expected  certain  results.  This  knowledge,  com- 
bined with  the  fact — which  should  be  ever  kept  before  his  mind — 
that  in  all  matters  under  his  jurisdiction,  he  is  at  liberty  to,  in  fact 
that  it  is  his  duty  to,  suggest  improvement  in  methods  of  conduct- 
ing affairs,  and  that  he  will  receive  proper  credit  for  such  sugges- 
tions, will  not  only  keep  the  machine  running  to  its  full  efficiency, 
but  will  improve  its  working,  until  it  becomes  well-nigh  perfect. 
And  in  no  other  way,  excepting  through  the  workings  of  a  system- 


174  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

atic  and  well-balanced  organization,  officered  by  men  carefully 
chosen  only  with  regard  to  their  fitness,  can  the  state  be  assured  of 
that  success  which  is  its  due,  and  which  it  can  justly  claim,  pro- 
viding it  recognizes  that  road  making  is  a  business  matter  and  acts 
accordingly. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  175 


SUBGRADE  PREPARATION. 

BY  JAMES  H.  MACDONALD,  STATS  HIGHWAY  COMMISSIONER  OF 

CONNECTICUT. 

A  well-built  road's  chief  characteristic  is  not  unlike  a  well-con«- 
structed  house,  at  least  in  one  respect.  Both  will  have  a  similarity, 
namely,  a  tight  roof  and  a  dry  cellar. 

The  different  conditions  to  be  found  throughout  the  United 
States  have  made  it  imperative  to  vary  the  treatment  or  method 
employed  in  the  construction  of  roads.  This  is  true,  not  only  in 
regard  to  climatic  conditions,  where  they  vary  and  change  many 
times  within  a  few  hundred  miles,  but  it  is  essentially  true  in 
regard  to  the  different  materials  with  which  to  construct  roads  in 
each  state.  The  geological  formation,  topography,  and  other  con- 
ditions force  the  adoption  of  widely  different  materials  to  be 
employed  in  the  several  states.  Each,  in  turn,  performs  its  own 
useful  function,  and  all  are  made  to  satisfy  that  which  is  required 
of  them,  be  it  oil,  stone,  gravel,  sand,  limestone,  asphalt,  or  cement 
for  the  surface  of  the  road.  But,  no  matter  of  what  material  the 
road  shall  be  constructed  of  or  with,  there  must  be  certain  rules 
adhered  to  and  treatment  closely  followed,  without  any  deviation 
in  so  far  as  that  which  is  necessary  to  furnish  a  proper  foundation 
upon  which  to  place  that  which  is  to  furnish  the  wearing  surface 
to  the  road  is  concerned. 

The  utilization  of  the  different  materials  to  be  found  through- 
out the  country  is  one  of  the  most  profound  questions  of  the  hour. 
The  brightest  minds  of  this  country  are  being  trained  to  develop 
to  its  greatest  field  of  usefulness  that  material  which  will  lend  itself 
a  willing  and  obedient  servant  to  the  master  road  builder's  hand  to 
accomplish  that  which  is  required  of  it. 

No  matter  how  much  taste  is  displayed  by  the  architect  in  the 
outline  or  the  appointments  of  your  home,  no  matter  how  expensive 
the  material  used  in  the  construction,  no  matter  what  taste  is  dis- 
played by  the  owner  in  regard  to  the  exterior  or  interior  of  the 
building,  if  the  house  is  not  constructed  on  a  proper  foundation,  all 
of  the  work  of  science,  and  of  art,  refined  taste,  and  money,  is 
wrasted.  So  that  the  subject-matter  I  am  to  treat  to-day,  in  my 
judgment,  carries  the  most  essential  and  important  feature  in  the 
whole  science  of  road  building. 

A  well-built  road  must  have  the  ability  to  sustain  and  hold  up 
into  the  position  it  should  occupy  the  wearing  surface  of  the  road, 
whether  it  be  two  inches  or  two  feet  in  depth.  Any  yielding  of  the 
subgrade  will  be  fatal  to  the  road.  The  whole  question  of  dust- 
laying  and  road-preservative  requirements  of  the  hour  is  simply 
relegated  to  a  secondary  position,  when  compared  with  this  very 
important  feature  of  the  construction,  and  the  remarkable  aspect  of 
this  important  part  of  road  building  is  that  it  is  not  so  much  the 
expense,  for  the  same  principle  can  be  adopted  in  the  simple  turn- 


176  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

piking  of  a  road  as  that  which  will  have  to  be  employed  in  the  most 
expensive  construction  that  we  are  called  upon  to  build  to-day. 

In  dealing  with  the  different  materials  that  we  encounter  in  the 
improvement  of  a  section  of  road,  the  old  saying  is  still  true  that 
the  greatest  accomplishment  a  human  mind  can  achieve,  as  we  have 
been  told  by  one  of  the  wise  men  of  other  days,  is  to  "Know  thy- 
self," and  to  take  the  material  we  have  had  for  thousands  of  years 
in  that  particular  section  you  and  I  are  familiar  with  and  have 
walked  or  ridden  over  ever  since  we  can  remember,  and,  by  a  scien- 
tific treatment  of  that  material,  bring  to  each  a  devolopment  that 
will  accomplish  that  which  will  utilize  the  material  to  the  best 
advantage.  That  is  high  art,  indeed. 

The  first  principle  to  follow  in  every  case  is  to  properly  drain  the 
section  of  road  to  be  improved,  after  which  you  then  take  up  the 
question  of  subgrade,  or  foundation,  upon  which  to  build  your  road. 
I  have  found  the  best  material  with  which  to  construct  a  subgrade 
is  sand  or  gravel.  Disintegrated  rock,  with  an  admixture  of  light 
loam,  makes  a  capital  subgrade.  I  have  known  cotton  cloth  or 
unbleached  muslin  to  be  used  on  the  surface  of  a  sand  subgrade. 
These  roads  have  been  called  calico  roads ;  but  this  practice  has 
been  abandoned,  and  a  better  process  has  been  resorted  to. 

Sprinkling  the  sand  before  rolling,  using  a  light  roller  before 
using  the  steam  roller,  or  lightening  the  roller  by  relieving  the 
boiler  of  one-half  its  water  capacity,  is  a  great  assistance  in  firming 
the  road,  as  the  sand  will  not  then  creep  before  the  roller,  thus  mak- 
ing the  subgrade  firm.  A  little  subsoil  placed  on  top  of  the  sand 
is  a  very  good  practice.  This  will  prevent  the  material  from  being 
pushed  ahead  of  the  roller,  and  it  will  make  a  good  sustainment  for 
the  stone  or  gravel.  If  something  is  not  done  to  make  a  sandy 
foundation  firm,  it  will  shift. 

Slighting  the  subgrade  is  sometimes  practiced  by  contractors, 
with  the  result  that  they  do  not  gain  anything,  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  the  contractor  has  to  pay  in  the  end  an  increased  expense, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  there  will  be  a  greater  shrinkage  in  the 
stone.  The  wise  contractor  is  the  man  who  will  spend  more  time 
with  his  fifteen  cents  an  hour  help  in  forming  the  subgrade,  and 
thereby  require  less  stone  or  gravel  and  other  incidental  expenses. 
This  is  often  the  reason  why  the  tonnage  of  stone  per  mile  has 
been  largely  exceeded  over  the  original  estimate  of  the  contractor. 
This  is  very  easily  demonstrated  by  taking  the  cost  of  the  stone 
per  ton,  with  freight,  the  haul  from  the  cars,  the  time  consumed  in 
applying  the  stone  on  the  road,  to  say  nothing  about  the  expense 
of  watering  and  rolling  required  to  get  the  road  into  a  perfect 
bond — firm  and  unyielding. 

But  you  will  ask,  naturally,  "Is  not  the  road  better  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  more  stone  has  been  used?"  Not  at  all.  This  would 
be  true  if  a  uniform  depth  of  stone  were  on  the  road.  But  it  is  an 
intermittent  depth.  In  some  places  there  may  be  four  inches  of 
stone,  while  in  other  places  there  may  be  eight  inches.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  roller  is  not  uniform  where  the  subgrade  is  not  suffi- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  177 

crently  hard  and  firm.  Wherever  there  is  an  intermittent  depth  of 
stone,  the  road  will  develop  a  weakness,  because  the  pressure  of 
the  roller  on  the  road  has  not  been  uniform. 

A  road,  in  many  respects,  is  similar  to  a  house.  If  you  are  build- 
ing a  house,  you  must  have,  not  only  a  good  foundation  for  the 
house  to  rest  upon,  but  you  must  also  have  a  tight  roof.  And,  in 
addition,  you  must  have  a  dry  cellar.  If  you  have  a  tight  roof,  and 
do  not  have  a  dry  cellar,  of  what  earthly  use  is  it  to  keep  the  water 
from  the  outside  from  getting  in,  if  you  have  a  leaky  cellar  that  will 
let  it  in  below?  It  is  the  same  in  building  a  road.  You  must  have 
a  good,  well-built,  substantial  foundation,  as  well  as  a  good  sur- 
face— a  roof — to  your  road.  Not  enough  attention  has  been  paid 
to  this  question  heretofore.  Commissioners,  and  others  officially 
employed,  have  not  always  been  to  blame,  however,  as  the  power 
behind  has  brought  up  the  dollar  sign,  and,  to  keep  peace  in  the 
family,  judgment  was  set  aside  and  conscience  was  quieted  with 
the  hope  that  it  might  come  out  all  right — a  fond,  foolish  illusion, 
never  realized.  I  do  not  believe,  and  never  have  believed,  that  the 
surface  of  the  road  can  ever  become  an  accomplished  fact  until 
this  all-important  and  necessary  adjunct  to  a  good  road — the  foun- 
dation— is  taken  care  of. 

Antedating  the  surface  must  come  directness  to  your  road ;  then, 
the  reduction  of  the  grades  to  a  minimum;  then,  the  question  of 
drainage.  Of  all  these,  the  most  important  is  under  and  surface 
drainage,  after  which  comes  the  question  of  surfacing — the  least 
important  of  all  things  connected  with  road  building.  You  want 
directness  to  your  road,  to  shorten  the  distance  and  minimize  the 
danger,  and  to  carry  the  surface  water  to  its  nearest  and  best  exit 
point.  It  is  not  enough  to  get  the  water  off  and  out  from  the  road, 
but  it  must  be  gotten  away  from  the  road.  When  we  have  done 
this,  we  can  commence  to  properly  construct  the  subgrade,  and  not 
before. 

Next  comes  the  veneer,  or  surface,  be  it  of  macadam,  gravel,  dis- 
integrated rock,  or  subsoil.  How  many  miles  of  splendid  looking 
macadam,  gravel,  and  earth  roads  have,  after  two  or  three  years' 
travel,  broken  down  and  gone  into  disrepair  through  a  lack  of 
knowledge,  carelessness,  or  neglect  to  properly  treat  the  subgrade? 

You  may  say:  "That  is  all  very  well,  Commissioner;  but  sup- 
pose there  are  developments  in  the  cuts  that  were  not  expected. 
What  then?" 

Suppose  there  is,  and  it  is  fair  to  assume,  in  the  light  of  my  own 
and  other  Commissioners'  experience,  that  such  will  be  the  case, 
and  that  we  find  conditions  very  similar  in  many  improvements 
where  unexpected  developments  occur. 

A  very  simple  precautionary  clause  in  the  specifications  will  meet 
any  of  these  unexpected  conditions,  by  simply  stating  in  the  speci- 
fications that  if,  in  the  process  of  grading,  the  contractor  finds  any 
material  that  will  be  liable  to  heave,  yield,  or  settle,  he  shall  remove 
it  and  furnish  that  material  which  will  be  competent  to  sustain  the 
stone  or  gravel  and  the  travel  the  surface  will  be  called  upon  to 


J78  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

bear;  also  put  in  a  clause  for  bids  for  rubble  drain  and  for  Tel- 
ford  work  by  the  linear  foot,  or  yard.  These  bids  will  then  fortify 
you  against  any  developments,  so  that  you  will  not  be  at  the  mercy 
of  the  contractor.  In  my  state  specifications  I  call  for  bids  for 
many  things  that  may  not'  develop,  and  at  the  time  of  asking  for  the 
bids  I  do  not  anticipate  being  called  upon  to  employ  them  in  the 
construction  of  the  work.  It  is  better,  I  find,  to  lock  the  stable 
before  the  horse  is  stolen,  rather  than  afterward. 

I  may  seem  to  have  taken  considerable  time  in  the  .development 
of  this  question  of  subgrade;  but  it  is  so  inseparably  interwoven 
with  other  essentials  that,  in  taking  up  the  question,  I  was  unable 
to  do  so  specifically,  for  it  is  really  the  link  in  the  chain  of  the 
whole  science  of  road  building,  and  a  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its 
weakest  link,  no  matter  how  well  built  that  chain  may  be. 

As  a  general  proposition,  in  accomplishing  a  well-built  subgrade, 
it  is  always  well  to  remove  all  loam,  roots,  and  vegetable  matter 
from  the  proposed  travel  part  of  the  road,  also  everything  of  a 
springy  nature,  or  anything  found  in  excavating  for  said  roadway 
that  will  be  liable  to  heave  or  settle,  and  fill  all  such  places  with 
clean  sand  or  gravel. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  fill  to  bring  the  subgrade  up  to  the 
height  required,  I  have  found  in  my  practice,  where  the  filling 
exceeds  one  foot  in  depth,  that  the  rilling  should  be  deposited  in 
courses  not  to  exceed  twelve  inches  in  depth,  loose  measurement, 
and  require  that  each  course  shall  be  extended  across  the  entire 
fill  and  completed  before  commencing  another  course,  no  matter 
if  the  fill  be  two  or  twenty  feet.  And  this  method  should  be  fol- 
lowed with  each  succeeding  course  until  the  established  grade  is 
reached.  The  constant  traveling  over  each  of  the  courses  by  the 
teams  employed  in  handling  the  material  will  remove  the  possi- 
bility of  ever  having  a  cracked  fill,  or  one  that  will  slide  after 
the  road  has  been  constructed.  This  is  a  very  important  matter, 
I  find,  and  I  have  used  it  in  my  work  in  my  own  state.  I  also  find 
that  in  the  cuts  it  is  well  not  to  plow  down  below  that  point  that 
is  to  be  the  finished  grade  of  the  subgrade,  but  to  keep  it  a  suffi- 
cient height  above  that,  so  that  when  the  roller  is  placed  on  the 
work  it  will  make  a  good  solid  foundation,  and  you  will  not  have 
to  resort  to  filling  in  the  cut  to  bring  the  subgrade  up  to  the 
grade  desired.  These  two  principles  of  cut  and  fill  will  be  found  to 
work  to  great  advantage  in  the  proper  construction  of  a  road. 

The  shape,  or  contour,  of  the  subgrade  has  been  somewhat  a  mat- 
ter of  controversy;  some  engineers  holding  to  the  level  line  foun- 
dation, and  putting  on  an  extra  depth  of  stone,  or  material,  in  the 
center  to  make  the  contour,  or  shed  from  the  center  line  of  the  road 
to  the  berms,  or  shoulders,  while  other  engineers  have  given  the 
subgrade,  or  foundation  upon  which  the  wearing  material  is  to  be 
placed,  the  same  contour  as  the  finished  road.  I  have  used  this 
latter  method  in  my  own  work  in  my  state,  by  reason  of  the  fact  I 
believe  it  makes  a  better  foundation,  and  that  the  uniform  depth 
of  stone  at  the  shoulders  will  assist  in  holding  the  crown  of  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  179 

road  in  shape  and  furnish  a  sustainment  at  the  shoulder  line  better 
than  to  have  a  less  depth  of  stone  at  the  shoulders  and  a  greater 
depth  at  the  center  of  the  road.  It  also  assists  in  case  of  a  breaking 
up  of  the  road,  or  a  fracture,  or  other  developments,  in  draining  to 
the  side,  or  shoulder,  of  the  road. 

The  forming  of  the  shoulders  is  a  very  important  matter.  They 
are  really  the  support  to  the  road.  It  has  always  been  my  practice, 
when  making  a  shoulder  in  the  fills,  to  lay  out  my  road  and  put 
the  newly  added  material  ten  or  twelve  inches  into  the  new  travel 
path,  tamping  it  down  firmly,  and  then  cutting  back  to  the  line, 
thereby  making  a  good,  firm  shoulder  to  work  to,  and  to  hold  in 
place  the  stone  or  gravel  in  the  travel  path  of  the  road. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  treat  this  question  as  intelligently 
through  the  medium  of  the  written  word  as  it  would  be  with  charts, 
which  it  had  been  my  intention  to  use,  had  I  come  in  person  to  the 
convention ;  but,  if  these  principles  are  followed  in  building  the 
subgrade,  a  good  foundation  upon  which  to  put  the  wearing  sur- 
face will  result. 

Where  a  weak  foundation — a  springy  nature  of  the  soil — occurs, 
the  material  I  have  described  to  be  used  for  the  subgrade  would  be 
replaced  by  a  good  Telford  construction,  namely,  a  stone  base ; 
but,  inasmuch  as  I  am  not  taking  up  the  general  proposition  of 
materials  and  how  to  use;them  above  the  foundation,  I  will  not 
enter  into  that  particular  phase  of  the  road  building  question. 

There  are  many  features  about  road  building  that  the  people  of 
our  country  are  unfamiliar  with,  and  even  those  who  are  in  au- 
thority, and  are  actively  engaged  in  this  work,  and  are  profession- 
ally employed  in  making  this  great  question  of  scientific  road  build- 
ing their  life  study,  are  as  yet  students  in  regard  to  this  matter. 
But,  notwithstanding  this  statement  is  an  acknowledged  fact,  the 
progress  made  during  the  last  sixteen  years  in  the  science  of  road 
building  has  been  marvelous,  and  the  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  progress  of  this  movement  on  the  part  of  our  country  is 
that,  while  our  people  have  been  wedded  to  old  customs  and  prac- 
tices in  road  building,  they  are  fast  coming  to  acknowledge  the 
fact  that  there  is  an  art  and  science  in  the  proper  construction  of  a 
road,  no  matter  what  the  material  may  be  of  which  a  road  is  con- 
structed. The  development  in  the  interest  of  our  people  during  the 
last  six  years  emphasizes  this  fact  in  no  uncertain  way. 

I  am  very  glad  at  this  time  and  in  this  way  to  contribute  these 
few  suggestions,  hoping  :and  trusting  that  something  that  I  have 
said  may  be  the  means  of  doing  some  good. 

I  also  take  this  opportunity,  as  I  close  this  little  article  on  sub- 
grade  treatment,  to  extend  my  hearty  congratulations  to  the  people 
of  the  Far  West  and  to  the  many  friends  I  met  on  my  visit  to 
the  Pacific  Coast  nearly  two  years  ago.  I  hope  and  trust  the  con- 
vention will  result  in  renewed  activity  and  a  greater  interest  and 
an  increased  knowledge  in  this  great  work  we  are  engaged  in,  and 
which  means  so  much  to  the  people  of  our  entire  country. 
M.R.B.— 13 


180  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


ROAD  MATERIALS  AND  SOME  SIMPLE  RULES  FOR 
TESTING  THEM. 

BY  AUSTIN  B.  FLETCHER,  M.  AM.  Soc.  C.  E.,  SECRETARY  MASSACHU- 
SETTS HIGHWAY  COMMISSION. 

A  great  diversity  of  materials  enter  into  the  construction  of 
roads  of  the  present  day,  for  in  this  great  country  of  ours  every 
variety  of  climatic,  geologic,  and  topographic  conditions  exist.  Ma- 
terials which  might  be  economically  useful  in  one  part  of  the  coun- 
try may  not  be  used  elsewhere  with  economy  because  of  excessive 
costs  of  haulage.  An  inferior  material  may  often  be  useful  eco- 
nomically because  of  the  great  cost  of  securing  a  superior  material, 
and  in  general,- without  reference  to  city  streets,  which  do  not 
come  within  the  purview  of  this  paper,  it  may  be  stated  that  for 
our  common  roads  we  must  rely  upon  materials  which  are  native 
to  our  own  locality. 

This  is  true  when  the  United  States  are  considered  as  a  whole, 
and  it  is  equally  true  when  the  needs  of  any  single  state  or  locality 
are  investigated.  Even  in  so  small  a  state  as  Massachusetts,  with 
its  area  of  only  8,200  square  miles,  it  often  happens  that  an  inferior 
local  stone  must  be  used,  because  it  is  better  economy  to  recon- 
struct or  resurface  more  frequently  than  to  pay  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting the  much  superior  trap  rock  and  with  it  resurface  less 
often. 

Indeed,  it  sometimes  happens  that  it  is  better  economy  to  use  a 
gravel  which  admittedly  requires  attention  at  relatively  short  inter- 
vals of  time  than  to  use  local  stone  in  the  form  of  macadam.  And 
in  some  of  the  Middle  States  and  elsewhere  it  is  found  that,  by  the 
skillful  use  of  the  log  drag,  ordinary  loam  makes  a  very  good  road 
surface  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  the  general  statement  made 
above.  In  many  of  the  states  where  asphaltic  oils  are  not  in- 
digenous it  seems  possible  to  produce  very  fair  results  by  combin- 
ing such  oils  with  sand  and  gravel.  Reports  indicate  that  much 
work  of  this  sort  has  been  done  in  California  during  a  period  of 
some  years.  By  reason  principally  of  the  relatively  small  quantity 
of  the  material  which  is  required,  it  is  possible  to  transport  the  oil 
for  long  distances  economically.  Massachusetts,  geographically, 
is  as  unfavorably  placed  as  possible  as  concerns  this  material; 
but  the  long  haul  from  the  Middle  West  or  from  Texas  does  not 
seem  to  preclude  its  use. 

The  writer  has  tried  to  make  it  clear  that  a  general  discussion 
of  all  of  the  materials  used  for  road  purposes  in  the  United  States 
is  difficult,  at  least  from  the  personal  knowledge  of  an  individual, 
and  therefore  this  paper  is  limited  to  such  materials  as  he  is  fa- 
miliar with  and  which  are  commonly  used  in  Massachusetts.  He 
does  not  pretend  to  any  acquaintance  with  gumbo,  novaculite,  as- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  181 

phaltic  rock,  etc.,  which  are  without  doubt  very  useful  materials 
in  the  localities  where  they  are  found. 

The  paper  may  therefore  be  divided  into  the  following  parts: 

1.  Sand  and  Clay. 

2.  Gravel. 

3.  Rock  Suitable  for  Macadam  Purposes. 

4.  Bituminous  Materials. 

In  what  follows  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  writer  is  disr 
cussing  materials  for  use  on  roads  having  at  least  a  moderate 
amount  of  traffic.  Some  statements  do  not  apply  to  by-roads,  or 
ways  upon  which  the  traffic  is  small,  and  in  general  main  inter- 
town  roads  are  referred  to. 

Sand  and  Clay. 

With  the  single  exception  of  ordinary  earth  or  loam,  sand  and 
clay  in  combination  is  probably  the  lowest  type  of  material  avail- 
able for  road  purposes. 

Without  doubt  loam  should  never  be  so  used,  with  regard  to 
economy,  if  anything  better  is  obtainable  at  a  reasonable  cost. 
It  is  true  that  by  the  use  of  a  log  drag  or  road  scraper,  under  the 
direction  of  trained  operators,  loam  roads  may  be  kept  in  excellent 
condition  during  the  summer  months;  but  in  the  spring,  with  the 
frost  coming  out  and  the  snow  melting,  the  condition  of  such  roads 
is  intolerable. 

Sand,  of  itself,  while  at  its  best  in  winter  and  spring,  does  not 
ever  have  sufficient  stability  to  sustain  traffic  over  it;  and  clay,  of 
itself,  is  open  to  the  same  or  greater  objection  than  loam. 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  combine  sand  with  clay  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  under  moderate  traffic  and  favorable  climatic  conditions 
a  fairly  serviceable  road  may  be  obtained.  But,  were  a  gravel  even 
of  inferior  quality  available,  a  sand-clay  road  would  not  be  con- 
sidered seriously. 

Gravel. 

Gravel,  unlike  sand,  loam,  and  clay,  is  not  a  simple  material. 
Indeed,  it  is  usually  a  mixture  of  materials — small  pebbles,  or  stone 
fragments,  combined  with  either  sand  or  clay. 

It  is  very  widely  distributed  throughout  the  glaciated  portion  of 
the  country.  Professor  N.  S.  Shaler  has  stated  that  it  rarely  oc- 
curs that  gravel  cannot  be  found  within  any  area  of  ten  miles 
square  in  the  glaciated  field. 

But  gravel  suitable  for  road  purposes  is  not  so  plentiful  as  the 
foregoing  statement  would  indicate,  since,  unless  the  pebbles  are 
combined  with  the  sand  or  with  the  clay  in  proper  proportions,  the 
gravel,  without  treatment,  may  be  of  little  value. 

Probably  the  best  gravel  is  what  is  called  in  some  parts  of  New 
England  "blue  gravel."  This  material  is  in  effect  finely  broken 
trap  rock,  which  has  been  subjected  to  little  or  no  water  action. 
The  fragments  are  angular,  the  gravel  contains  little  argillaceous 


182  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

matter,  and  when  placed  on  the  road  and  rolled  the  fragments  lock 
together  into  a  mass  having  relatively  few  voids  and  great  stability. 
The  deposits  of  this  blue  gravel  are  rare,  and  the  community  with 
a  bed  of  such  material  is  to  be  congratulated.  .  Its  road  problem 
is  not  a  serious  one. 

As  between  the  sandy  gravels  and  the  clayey,  the  choice  should 
be  usually  in  favor  of  the  former,  unless  the  clay  is  in  relatively 
small  proportion.  Too  much  clay  makes  a  muddy  road,  and  one 
which  is  easily  rutted  by  traffic.  Too  much  sand,  with  large  peb- 
bles, makes  a  mass  with  little  or  no  stability,  and  no  amount  of 
rolling  will  compact  it. 

For  the  best  results,  in  general,  considering  the  ordinary  gravels, 
the  writer  believes  that  all  stones  which  will  not  pass  through  a 
two  and  one-half  inch  mesh  should  be  screened  out;  that  at  least 
50  per  cent,  by  weight  should  consist  of  pebbles  or  fragments  which 
will  not  pass  through  a  one  and  one-quarter  inch  mesh ;  at  least 
80  per  cent,  should  not  pass  through  a  one-half  inch  mesh ;  and 
that  the  remainder  should  consist  of  small  fragments  of  pebbles  and 
sand  from  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch  in  diameter  to  an  impalpable 
powder. 

The  writer  admits  that  such  a  gravel  is  too  rarely  found ;  but  he 
offers  it  as  an  ideal,  to  be  approached  as  nearly  as  is  possible,  al- 
ways bearing  in  mind  the  economics  of  the  problem. 

A  gravel  so  graded,  when  properly  rolled,  has  great  stability 
in  the  road.  If  the  pebbles  in  the  gravels  are  from  rocks  of  a  crys- 
talline or  eruptive  nature,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  New  England,  a 
road  built  of  such  material  will  make  but  little  mud  under  traffic, 
and  should  not  rut  to  any  considerable  extent,  even  when  the  frost 
is  coming  out  of  the  ground. 

Rocks. 

In  general,  the  chief  desiderata  in  rocks  for  road  building  are 
hardness  and  toughness,  and  the  writer  believes  that  toughness 
should  be  written  first.  It  is  wholly  within  the  range  of  possibility 
that  in  the  most  modern  types  of  road  surfaces,  considered  econom- 
ical for  the  kind  of  roads  herein  contemplated,  namely,  those  in 
which  some  form  of  bitumen  is  used  as  a  binder  or  matrix,  or  as  a 
wearing  coat,  stones  of  somewhat  inferior  quality  may  be  used 
safely. 

If  the  road  builder  has  a  choice  between  stones  for  macadam  pur- 
poses, and  too  often  he  has  not,  no  scientific  instruments  of  preci- 
sion are  usually  required  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  the 
stones.  The  stone  hammer  and  the  scratching  of  one  stone  with 
the  other  are  all  that  are  necesssary.  And  it  may  also  be  generally 
stated  that  the  rocks  having  a  fine  texture  are  more  likely  to  be 
tough  than  those  having  coarse  crystals.  When  there  is  not  an 
excess  of  motor  vehicles  in  the  locality,  a  smooth-surfaced  road  will 
be  more  often  secured  if  ledge  rock  is  used,  rather  than  field  boul- 
ders. The  field  stones  are  usually  of  glacial  origin.  The  fact  that 
they  escaped  utter  demolition  in  the  cataclysmic  grindings  of  the 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  183 

glacial  period  indicates  that  they  were  of  the  toughest  and  hardest 
parts  of  the  rocks  from  which  they  were  separated.  But,  while 
they  may  be  harder  and  tougher  than  the  ledge  rock  in  the  locality, 
because  of  lack  of  uniformity  in  these  characteristics,  comparing 
boulder  with  boulder,  the  road  surface  in  which  they  are  placed  is 
likely  to  wear  less  smoothly  than  if  ledge  rock  is  used. 

Under  very  light  traffic,  or  when  motor  vehicles  predominate,  the 
writer  believes  that  a  relatively  soft  rock  will  often  prove  to  be 
more  economical  than  a  relatively  hard  one ;  also  that  under  such 
conditions,  when  a  good  gravel  is  obtainable,  its  use  will  usually 
prove  to  be  more  economical  than  if  the  road  is  built  after  the  mac- 
adam type. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  cementing  power  of 
the  fine  dust  or  powder  which  results  from  the  crushing  of  'stone  by 
machinery.  The  writer  believes  that  certain  stones,  notably  the 
limestones,  undoubtedly  produce  screenings  of  value  in  this  re- 
spect. But,  while  most  of  the  other  stones  make  a  dust  almost 
wholly  lacking  in  this  property,  such  screenings,  when  properly 
applied,  serve  well  as  a  binder.  It  would  seem  that  the  action  is 
more  mechanical  than  chemical.  The  fact  that  sand,  if  the  particles 
are  angular  and  not  rounded,  is  often  used  satisfactorily  as  a  binder, 
would  seem  to  prove  this  hypothesis. 

Of  the  most  common  stones  used  for  macadam  work,  it  has  come 
to  be  generally  accepted  that  trap  rock  (diabases,  diorites,  and  some 
other  rocks  of  an  igneous  metamorphosis)  is  the  best.  In  the  order 
of  merit  there  follow  the  felsites,  hornblendic  granites,  the  harder 
limestones,  schists,  and  quartzites.  It  is  not  safe,  however,  with- 
out investigation  and  tests,  to  say,  for  instance,  that  a  granite  is 
always  better  than  a  limestone,  since  some  of  the  noncrystalline 
limestones  are  often  found  to  be  far  superior  to  the  large  crystalled 
granites.  This  may  also  be  found  to  be  true  when  other  rocks  of 
the  foregoing  list  are  compared  with  one  another. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  laboratory  tests  of  rocks  for  road  building 
are  those  made  by  the  Public  Road  Office  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
of  which  Mr.  Logan  Waller  Page  is  director. 

That  department  undertakes  to  make  tests  and  analyses  of  stones 
without  charge.  It  has  done  much  excellent  work,  and  tests  and 
reports  on  tests  are  made  with  admirable  promptness.  The  nature 
of  the  tests  as  made  by  the  Public  Roads  Office  will  not  be  dis- 
cussed here.  They  include  everything  hereinbefore  referred  to  con- 
cerning tests  of  rocks  and  much  more,  and  they  have  been  com- 
pletely described  in  the  bulletins  of  that  department.1 

Bituminous  Materials. 

The  writer  pauses  before  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  the 
tests  of  bituminous  materials  which  may  be  used  in  road  wprk. 
While  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  material  is  the  most  interesting 

i  See  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletins  7,  9,  and  85. 


184  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

that  has  so  far  entered  into  the  construction  of  road  surfaces,  it  is 
so  new  that  no  standards  have  been  fixed. 

The  necessity  for  the  use  of  such  materials  on  our  rural  roads  is 
wholly  due  to  the  rapid  change  in  traffic  conditions  from  horse- 
drawn  to  self-propelled  vehicles.  Nor  is  it  known  precisely  why 
motor  vehicles  require  so  different  a  kind  of  road  surface.  Much 
has  been  said  and  written,  and  the  writer  of  this  paper  acknowl- 
edges his  own  errors  in  that  particular,  about  the  suction  caused 
by  the  tires  of  such  vehicles.  While  suction  may  play  some  part 
in  the  erosin  of  road  surfaces,  it  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that 
the  principal  source  of  difficulty  lies  in  the  distintegrating  action 
of  the  rear  wheels  of  motor  vehicles.  The  tractive  power,  being 
applied  through  the  rear  wheels,  results  in  a  tangential  stress  upon 
the  surface,  instead  of  a  pressure  normal  to  the  surface,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  horse-drawn  vehicle. 

Until  comparatively  recently  it  has  not  been  necessary  to  pro- 
vide against  any  such  tangential  stress ;  but  no  macadam  road 
which  will  receive  much  motor  vehicle  traffic  should  now  be 
planned  without  taking  it  into  consideration. 

Thus  far  bituminous  materials  only  seem  to  offer  a  remedy  for 
the  difficulty  at  a  cost  which  is  reasonable,  and  the  coal  tars,  asphal- 
tic  oils,  and  asphalts  are  the  materials  to  which  road  builders  have 
turned  their  attention  in  their  search  for  a  binder  for  the  broken 
stone. 

The  writer  is  aware  that  the  title  of  this  paper  mentions  partic- 
ularly simply  tests.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  simple  test  of  bi- 
tuminous material.  There  is  no  branch  of  chemistry  which  gives 
the  chemist  more  trouble  than  the  analyzing  of  materials  containing 
bitumens. 

It  is  true  that  the  coal  tars  have  been  used  for  many  years,  here 
and  abroad,  for  sidewalk  purposes,  and  to  some  extent  in  roadways, 
and  that  some  of  the  men  who  have  handled  the  materials  have 
become  more  or  less  expert  in  its  use.  Indeed,  some  of  these  men 
claim  to  be  able  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  a  tar  when  heated  by 
watching  it  drip  off  the  end  of  a  stick  or  by  chewing  it.  But  these 
tests  are  rather  too  crude  for  the  engineer,  and  the  expert  chewer 
cannot  describe  his  sensations  accurately  enough  for  insertion  in 
specifications.  The  results  secured  in  the  use  of  tar  also  indicate 
that  these  empiric  methods  are  too  crude,  since,  while  some  of  the 
work  done  has  been  excellent,  other  tar  constructions  have  disin- 
tegrated rapidly. 

All  this  leads  the  writer  to  the  belief  that  the  chemist  must,  in  a 
large  measure,  work  out  this  new  problem  for  the  road  builder. 

The  coal  tars  have  been  used  sufficiently  in  the  past  in  road  build- 
ing to  indicate  that  to  be  of  substantial  benefit  they  must  be  par- 
tially refined  and  possibly  combined  with  other  materials.  Unless 
they  are  treated  so  that  all  the  water,  the  naphthas,  some  of  the 
light  oils,  and  the  ammoniacal  liquors  are  removed,  they  will  prove 
of  little  value.  But  just  what  the  permissible  specific  gravity  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  185 

percentage  of  free  carbon,  and  what  the  viscosity  and  other  charac- 
teristics should  be,  are  questions  of  greater  difficulty. 

The  chemists,  acting  with  the  engineers,  are  working  diligently 
on  these  questions,  and  it  is  hoped  that  by  their  combined  efforts 
the  essential  characteristics  will  be  standardized. 

The  asphaltic  oils  likewise  promise  to  be  useful  as  binders  for 
macadam  and  gravel  roads ;  but  even  less  is  known  of  them  than 
of  the  tars.  It  seems  to  be  reasonably  safe  to  say  that  they  should 
be  free  from  water,  and  that  no  oil  which  has  a  base  of  paraffin 
should  be  used.  The  value  of  the  oil  should  depend  on  the  amount 
of  bitumen  contained  in  it.  Oils  having  a  relatively  low  percentage 
of  bitumen  are  useful  for  surface  application  to  alleviate  the  dust 
nuisance ;  but  for  use  as  a  binder  in  gravel  or  macadam  work  it 
now  seems  that  those  oils  which  have  the  greatest  percentage  of 
bitumen  will  prove  most  economical. 

It  is  an  open  question  whether  the  best  asphaltic  oil  is  such  as 
is  made  up  synthetically  by  thinning  down  asphalts  with  lighter 
oils  or  fluxing  oils,  or  whether  the  best  oil  is  secured  by  stopping 
the  refining  process  at  just  the  right  point  and  before  the  refining 
is  carried  to  the  hard  asphalt  stage.  It  would  appear  that  the  first 
process  should  give  a  product  more  uniform  than  the  latter,  but 
which  process  is  the  better  is  not  yet  determined. 

The  asphalts  which  are  being  experimented  with  as  binders  are 
mostly  of  those  made  from  asphaltic  oils.  No  one  knows  whether 
they  will  prove  more  economical  for  use  than  the  so-called  natural 
asphalts,  such  as  the  Trinidad  or  the  Bermudez.  Lacking  the  test 
of  time,  the  oil  asphalts  appear  to  be  cheaper. 

The  following  specifications  will  give  some  idea  of  the  complex- 
ity of  the  artificial  binders  here  under  discussion.  They  are  such 
as  have  been  prepared  for  the  Massachusetts  Highway  Commis- 
sion by  Mr.  H.  W.  Clark,  Chief  Chemist  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Health,  and  represent  the  results  of  a  considerable  study 
of  the  materials  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  roads.  It  is  not 
claimed  that  they  are  in  perfect  form ;  but  the  Commission  is  using 
materials  conforming  to  them  this  year  in  its  treatment  of  many 
miles  of  road.  The  specifications  are  intended  to  represent  what 
have  been  so  far  offered  as  the  best  materials  for  bituminous  road 
binders. 

Refined  Tar. 

Section  lOa.  The  tar  must  be  uniform  in  color,  character,  appear- 
ance, and  viscosity,  and  must  have  the  following  qualities : 

a.  It  shall  contain  not  more  than  0.5  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter 
or  dirt. 

b.  It  shall  have  a  specific  gravity  between  1.18  and  1.25. 

c.  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  14  per  cent,  by  weight  of  free 
carbon. 

d.  It  shall  contain  no  body  that  distills  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  225°   C. ;    not  over  10  per  cent,  by  weight  shall  distill  below 
270°  C. ;  and  it  shall  contain  at  least  65  per  cent,  by  weight  of  pitch 


186  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

and  bituminous  material  remaining  after  all  bodies  up  to  360°  C. 
have  been  distilled. 

e.  When  20  grams  are  heated  in  a  flat-bottom  dish  3  inches  in 
diameter  for  twenty-one  hours  in  an  oven  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  100°  C.,  the  loss  shall  be  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  by  weight. 

'f.  It  shall  be  of  such  viscosity  that  60  c.c.  measured  at  room  tem- 
perature (78°  F.  or  26°  C.)  shall,  when  at  100°  C.,  be  not  less  than 
85  seconds  and  not  more  than  240  seconds  in  passing  through  a  vis- 
cosimeter  orifice  5/64  of  an  inch  in  diameter  when  acting  under  a 
head  of  4*4  inches. 

g.  When  12%  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  material  is  mixed  with 
87%  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sand,  of  such  a  grade  that  all  will  pass 
through  a  sieve  having  10  meshes  to  the  linear  inch  and  practically 
none  through  a  sieve  having  100  meshes  to  the  linear  inch,  and 
briquettes  made  3  inches  square  and  %  i«ch  thick,  such  briquettes 
will  so  harden  in  seven  days  at  ordinary  room  temperature  that 
when  laid  flat  and  held  by  their  edges  by  two  parallel  knife-edge 
bars,  they  shall  not  bend  when  a  weight  is  suspended  from  a  third 
knife-edge  or  parallel  bar  placed  across  their  center  until  this  weight 
reaches  200  grams,  and  shall  not  break  at  less  than  250  grams,  and 
the  weight  causing  bending  shall  not  be  greater  than  80  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  causing  breaking. 

Asphaltic  Oil. 

Section  lOb.  The  oil  submitted  shall  be  of  a  uniform  color,  ap- 
pearance, general  character,  and  viscosity.,  must  contain  no  bodies 
not  naturally  present  in  an  asphaltic  oil,  arid  must  fulfill  the  follow- 
ing requirements : 

1.  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  0.5  per  cent,  of  dirt  or  adventi- 
tious mineral  matter. 

2.  It  shall  have  a  specific  gravity  of  at  least  0.97. 

3.  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  matter  insoluble 
in  carbon  bisulphide,  and  should  not  contain  more  than  10  per  cent, 
insoluble  in  petroleum  ether. 

4.  It  shall  contain  no  body  that  distills  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  250°  C.,  and  shall  not  lose  more  than  55  per  cent,  by  weight 
by  distillation  to  360°  C. 

5.  It  shall  be  of  such  viscosity  that  60  c.c.  measured  at  room  tem- 
perature (78°  F.  or  26°  C.)  shall,  when  at  100°  C.,  be  not  less  than 
5  minutes  nor  more  than  10  minutes  in  passing  through  a  visco- 
simeter  orifice  5/64  of  an  inch  in  diameter  when  acting  under  a  head 
of  4^4  inches. 

'6.  When  20  grams  are  heated  in  a  flat-bottom  dish  3  inches  in 
diameter  for  twenty-one  hours  in  an  oven  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  100°  C.,  it  shall  not  lose  more  than  5  per  cent,  by  weight. 

7.  When  12%  Per  cent,  by  weight  of  material  is  mixed  with 
87%  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sand,  and  briquettes  made  3  inches 
square  and  one-half  inch  thick,  these  briquettes  must  keep  their 
shape  and  show  some  binding  together. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  187 

Oil  Asphalt. 

Section  lOc. 

1.  The  asphalt  submitted  shall  be  of  uniform  color,  appearance, 
and  character,  and  shall  contain  no  body  not  naturally  present  in 
an  oil  asphalt. 

2.  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  dirt  or  adventi- 
tious mineral  matter. 

3.  It  shall  have  a  specific  gravity  between  1.00  and  1.10. 

4.  It  shall  not  contain  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  matter  insoluble 
in  carbon  bisulphide,  and  should  not  contain  more  than  30  per  cent, 
insoluble  in  petroleum  ether. 

5.  It  shall  contain  no  body  that  would  distill  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  225°  C.,  and  should  not  lose  more  than  40  per  cent,  by 
weight  by  distilling  to  360°  C. 

6.  When  20  grams  are  heated  in  a  flat-bottom  dish  3  inches  jn 
diameter  for  twenty-one  hours  in  an  oven  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
100°  C.,  the  weight  shall  remain  practically  constant. 

Conclusion. 

The  writer  is  aware  that  he  has  failed  to  include  in  this  paper 
many  tests,  simple  or  otherwise,  of  a  great  variety  of  materials 
which  enter  into  the  construction  of  a  modern  road.  No  mention 
has  been  made  of  tests  of  cement,  steel,  clay  pipes,  paint,  etc.  To 
have  included  them  would  have  made  this  paper  unduly  long,  and 
would,  perhaps,  have  taken  it  beyond  the  scope  intended  by  the 
committee  of  the  Congress  which  assigned  the  subject  to  the 
writer. 

The  simplest  and  best  test  of  road  materials  is  their  behavior 
under  actual  usage  during  a  term  of  years.  All  accelerated  tests 
may  lead  the  investigator  into  error,  but  often  it  is  not  possible  to 
wait  for  time  to  show  results. 

Such  is  the  case  with  the  use  of  a  bituminous  binder,  which,  as 
has  already  been  stated,  is  the  most  interesting  subject  which  the 
world's  road  builders  have  before  them  at  the  present  time. 

Of  the  three  mentioned  in  this  paper,  the  tars  are  best  known. 
Some  excellent  results  have  been  secured  by  their  use,  and  many 
failures  have  occurred.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  specification  for 
the  best  tar  composition  will  soon  be  available.  As  for  the  asphal- 
tic  oils  and  the  oil  asphalts,  not  so  much  can  be  said  at  the  present 
time.  They  have  not  fully  demonstrated  their  usefulness  in  the 
Eastern  States,  at  least,  and  they  must  be  watched  for  a  term  of 
years.  They  give  great  promise,  however. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  may  cost  less  to  resurface  a  road 
with  an  inferior  material,  often  applied,  than  to  use  the  new  mate- 
rials now  entering  into  rural  road  construction. 

The  cost  per  unit  per  annum  is  the  ultimate  test  of  the  usefulness 
of  any  material. 


188  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


SENSIBLE  UTILIZATION  OF  CONVICT  LABOR. 

BY  HORATIO  S.  EARLE,  PRESIDENT,  NATIONAL  CONVICT  LABOR  GOOD 
ROADS  ASSOCIATION,  DETROIT,  MICHIGAN. 

We  are  our  brother's  keeper,  intensely,  when  we  have  him  incar- 
cerated. 

We  are  in  many  cases  as  guilty  as  the  convict  of  a  crime, 
for  the  burden  of  properly  bringing  up  the  young  rests  upon  the 
adults,  and  if  for  our  neglect  he  is  a  convict,  then  remember  that 
it  is  our  fault,  and  let  our  dealings  with  him  show  our  knowledge 
of  it,  and  do  all  we  can  to  ameliorate  our  crime. 

Then  the  paramount  matter  is,  what  can  we  do  for  the  convict? 

'We  can  give  him  education,  that  will  uplift  him,  so  he  can  see  his 
former  self  as  others  did  see  him. 

We  can  give  him  good  food,  good  clothes,  good  home,  and  give 
him  good  hard  work,  all  of  which  will  help  to  make  a  stronger  man 
out  of  him,  physically,  morally,  and,  we  will  hope,  spiritually. 

Education,  food,  clothes,  home  for  him  are  easy  things  to  do ; 
but  what  kind  of  work  we  shall  give  him  is  quite  another  thing. 
But  work  he  must  have,  or  become  worse  than  when  he  received  his 
sentence. 

Shall  we  take  away  from  honest  men  and  women  nice,  easy  work 
to  do,  and  give  it  to  him  ? 

Shall  we  give  him  work  manufacturing  merchantable  goods,  so 
as  to  place  these  cheaply  made  goods  in  competition  with  those 
made  by  men  paid  a  living  wage? 

We  have  already  committed  one  crime,  the  crime  of  not  properly 
bringing  up  the  man ;  and  he  it  is  that  we  have  incarcerated  for  his 
and  our  crime.  He  has  to  suffer  for  both.  Shall  we  commit 
another  crime,  and  ask  others  to  suffer  for. our  criminality? 

It  is  nothing  less  than  a  crime  for  states  and  the  United  States 
to  sell  the  labor  of  convicts  at  a  less  price  per  human-ability  kilo- 
watt than  is  paid  in  a  family-supporting  living  wage. 

Shall  we,  for  the  sake  of  furnishing  loyal  political  party  workers 
jobs  in  nice  clean  factories,  whose  talents  in  many  instances  do  not 
furnish  them  with  an  ability  to  sucessfully  run  a  blacksmith  shop, 
allow  state  slave  labor  to  compete  with  honest  men,  and  allow  the 
taxpayers  to  be  taxed  for  capital  to  run  unsuccessfully  a  state  fac- 
tory to  compete  with  private  capital,  and  so  put  a  burden  upon  the 
shoulders  of  both? 

One  crime  we  are  already  guilty  of,  shirking  our  duty  to  the 
young;  and  to  that  we  are  going  to  add  two  more,  harming  labor 
by  unjust  competition,  and  capital  by  tax  capital  squandered. 

Work  these  men  must  have,  lots  of  it,  and  good  hard  work. 

What  shall  we  give  them  to  do  that  will  not  do  injury  to  honest 
labor  or  private  capital? 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  180 

The  almost  insurmountable,  yet  very  desirable,  thing-  that  is 
needed  to  be  done  in  each  state  in  the  Union ;  and  let  the  United 
States  do  the  same. 

What  do  I  mean? 

I  mean,  let  Michigan  build  a  concrete  arch  bridge  two  hundred 
feet  above  water  level  across  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw,  even  though 
it  takes  fifty  years  for  the  state  to  do  it,  and  use  convict  labor  in 
doing  it. 

This  by  private  capital  is  insurmountable,  but  with  state  convict 
labor  possible. 

After  such  a  bridge  was  completed,  a  toll  could  be  collected  from 
all  railroad  companies  using  it,  and  it  would  furnish  funds  to  sup- 
port the  penal  institutions  of  the  state  to  the  benefit  of  our  posterity, 
that  we  should  be  as  much  or  more  interested  in  as  we  are  in  our- 
selves. 

I  am  not  acquainted  with  the  desirable,  yet  insurmountable, 
things  in  the  state  of  Washington.  It  may  be  that  you  need  an 
enormous  bridge,  or  perhaps  a  tunnel,  through  Mt.  Rainier.  Use 
your  convicts  for  that  purpose.  Then,  and  then  only,  will  you  or 
any  other  state  be  employing  sensible  ways  of  using  convicts, 
which  will  benefit  them,  harm  neither  labor  or  capital,  and  be  a 
great,  lasting  benefit  to  state,  nation,  and  world. 


190  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


TELFORD  ROADS. 

BY  WALTER  WILSON  CROSBY,  CHIEF  ENGINEER,  MARYLAND  GEO- 
LOGICAL SURVEY,  HIGHWAY  DIVISION. 

The  history  of  road  making  extends  over  a  period  of  2,500  years. 
The  Romans  learned  the  art  of  making  paved  roads  from  the  Car- 
thaginians, and  the  Roman  roads  have  always  been  regarded  as 
models  from  which  to  copy  and  plan  for  present-day  work.  The 
Incas  in  Peru  built  extensive  roads,  according  to  Humboldt  "not 
inferior  to  the  most  imposing  Roman  roadways."  The  early 
French  roads  were  constructed  on  the  Roman  method  until  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century;  but  after  about  1764  the 
methods  were  considerably  modified  by  M.  Tresaguet,  and  later, 
after  McAdam  had  achieved  so  much  success  in  the  British  Isles, 
still  further  modifications  were  adopted  in  1820. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  older  methods 
was  the  attention  given  to  and  the  expense  incurred  in  providing 
the  most  solid  foundations.  These  were  frequently  three  feet  in 
thickness,  composed  of  several  layers  of  large  stone.  The  early 
French  methods  simply  reduced  the  thickness  to  about  one-half 
that  of  the  Roman  foundations,  and  later  Tresaguet  reduced  the 
foundation  to  one  layer  of  large  stone,  eight  to  twelve  inches  high, 
set  on  edge — a  forerunner  of  what  is  now  called  "Telford." 

In  August,  1757,  Thomas  Telford  was  born  in  the  district  of  Esk- 
dale,  county  of  Dumfries,  Scotland.  Learning  the  trade  of  a 
mason,  he  studied  architecture  in  Edinburgh  and  London,  and, 
being  a  man  of  great  ability,  soon  established  himself  as  a  leading 
engineer. 

Primarily  Telford  was  a  bridge  builder;  but  he  carried  out  many 
other  engineering  works,  particularly  that  of  laying  out  and  con- 
structing new  roads.  He  was  extremely  successful  in  building 
nearly  one  thousand  miles  of  roads  in  Scotland  by  contract.  He  let 
120  contracts  for  this  work,  extending  over  a  period  of  18  years, 
and  the  work  was  done  with  an  economy  before  unheard  of,  and 
which  resulted  in  extending  his  fame  widely,  and  to  his  being 
called  as  consulting  engineer  on  various  engineering  projects  in 
Europe. 

One  year  previous  to  the  birth  of  Telford,  was  born  another  fam- 
ous road  maker,  John  London  McAdam,  at  Ayr,  Scotland.  McAdam 
spent  his  youth  in  the  United  States  of  America,  returning  to  Scot- 
land in  1793.  The  rest  of  his  active  life  was  passed  in  road  work 
in  Ayrshire,  Falmouth,  Bristol,  Perthshire,  etc.  His  success  was 
such  that  he  is  generally  considered  a  pioneer  of  good  road  con- 
struction and  administration,  and  entitled  to  the  reputation  of  a 
public  benefactor. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Telford  and  McAdam  were  contemporaries. 
The  reputation  of  each  will  long  survive  their  work,  and  justly  so. 


I 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  191 

In  many  ways  they  worked  along  identical  lines.  To-day  we  sepa- 
rate or  identify  them  by  one  difference  in  particular ;  that  is,  in  the 
matter  of  the  foundations  preferred  by  each. 

McAdam  preferred  to  consolidate  the  natural  soil  by  drainage, 
by  reinforcing  it  with  gravel,  or  by  similar  means,  and  then  to  place 
the  surfacing  coat  of  broken  stone  directly  on  the  prepared  sub- 
grade,  increasing  the  thickness  of  this  layer  of  stone  as  might  be 
necessary  over  weaker  subgrades.  Telford  preferred  to  follow  the 
older  method,  and  provide  between  the  natural  soil  and  the  surfac- 
ing coat  a  pavement  of  larger  stone  for  the  support  of  the  surface. 

Since  the  passing  away  of  the  man  whose  name  is  now  attached 
to  it,  this  subpavement  has  been  repeatedly  tried  by  nearly  every 
community  proceeding  with  the  work  of  road  improvement,  in  the 
early  stages  of  its  work,  and  abandoned  in  nearly  all  of  them. 

Undoubtedly  such  a  foundation  accomplishes  its  aim — to  provide 
sufficient  solidity  for  the  surface.  But,  expedient  as  it  may  have 
been  under  the  peculiar  conditions  of  its  use  by  Telford,  it  is  ques- 
tionable if  its  use  did  not  at  the  same  time  produce  other  conditions 
which  ultimately  might  furnish  arguments  against  it.  It  is,  of 
course,  probable  that  conditions  where  Telford  worked  were  such 
that  his  well-known  aim  of  economy  was  met  with  the  use  of  the 
pavement  foundation.  Conditions  have,  however,  so  changed  since 
his  time  that  it  is  perhaps  doubtful  if  Telford  himself  would  now 
repeat  its  use,  at  least  to  its  former  extent,  in  the  same  localities, 
and  it  is  most  probable  that,  under  the  changed  conditions  now 
existing  here  with  us,  he  would  abandon,  to  a  large  extent,  at  least, 
if  not  wholly,  its  general  use. 

When  the  older  road  builders  were  securing  their  results,  labor 
was  cheap,  material  plentiful,  and  in  many  cases  expenses  of  com- 
paratively little  moment.  Coarse  stone  for  the  foundations  were 
less  hard  to  secure  than  the  broken  stone  for  surfacing.  The  latter 
were  slowly  broken  by  hand.  Steam  rollers  were  unknown.  Rec- 
ords of  first  cost  were  not  clear  in  many  cases,  and  no  records  of 
maintenance  cost,  for  comparison  with  a  census  of  the  traffic  over 
the  finished  work,  were  available  for  pointing  out  what  was  eco- 
nomical construction  and  what  was  not. 

Further,  it  is  doubtful*  if  a  fair  comparison  of  results  of  the 
methods  in  use  by  the  Romans,  and  followed  by  Telford,  can  be 
made  with  similar  work  elsewhere,  because  of  a  lack  of  knowledge 
of,  or  lack  of  record  of,  the  variance  in  the  local  conditions  of  cli- 
mate and  use.  We  do  know,  however,  that  Telford  was  tried  in 
France,  and  abandoned  for  Macadam. 

In  this  country,  with  its  diversified  conditions,  both  Telford  and 
Macadam  have  been  used  under  all  sorts  of  circumstances,  and  the 
consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  against  the  use  of  Telford,  except 
under  most  extraordinary  circumstances. 

Nowadays,  with  the  rise  in  valuation  of  even  rough  stone,  with 
the  increased  cost  of  labor,  with  the  advent  of  the  steam  roller  and 
the  modern  stone-crushing  machinery,  with  the  changed  conditions 
of  vehicular  traffic,  and  especially,  in  many  parts  of  this  country, 


192  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

with  the  existing  variety  of  climatic  conditions,  such,  for  instance, 
as  long-continued  rainy  weather,  long  periods  of  drought,  deep 
freezing,  or  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  the  best  practice  seems 
to  unite  in  the  abandonment  of  Telford  foundations. 

Numerous  trials  of  it  have  been  made  in  different  localities,  and 
even  to-day  one  occasionally  hears  of  some  state,  just  starting  in  on 
modern  road  work,  which  adopts  in  the  early  days  of  the  work  the 
Telford  road  as  its  standard.  Later,  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
the  inelasticity  of  this  adoption  has  resulted  in  a  reversal  of  policy. 

In  the  effort  of  the  inexperienced  to  improve  on  previous  results, 
by  building  apparently  more  substantially,  is  lost  sight  of  the  fact 
that  rigidity  and  high  first  cost  may  not  always  be  most  advanta- 
geous, and  the  fact  that  frequently  permanence  may  require  to  be 
sacrified  to  some  extent  for  the  sake  of  economy,  or  of  comfort  and 
convenience. 

A  Telford  base  will  certainly  give  rigidity  and  resistance  to  ver- 
tical displacement  under  occasional  heavy  loads.  It  is  open  to  the 
objection,  however,  of  being  frequently  too  rigid  and  unyielding 
for  the  economical  maintenance  of  the  surfacing  on  top  of  it.  Such 
a  base  acts  as  an  anvil,  upon  which  the  pieces  of  stone  in  the  sur- 
facing may  be  more  easily  reduced  to  a  powder  by  the  hammering 
effect  of  the  heavily  loaded  wagon  tires. 

Where  frost  penetrates  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or 
more,  it  has  been  proved  by  general  experience  that  the  large  stone 
composing  the  base  will  work  up  into  and  destroy  the  surfacing, 
as  well  as  thus  losing  their  own  lateral  support  under  such  frost 
action,  and  consequently  much  of  their  power  to  support  loads. 
When  the  base  becomes  so  displaced,  the  maintenance  of  the  sur- 
face is  rendered  still  more  difficult  and  expensive. 

In  many  instances,  the  maintenance  of  a  bond  between  the  bro- 
ken stone  surface  coat  and  the  paved  base  has  been  found  ex- 
tremely difficult  under  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  local  traffic. 

There  are,  moreover,  a  very  few  occasions,  if  any,  where  the  nec- 
essary firmness  for  the  base  to  the  macadam  surface  cannot  be 
secured  by  other  methods,  both  freer  of  objections  and  less  expen- 
sive, than  by  the  Telford  base. 

There  may  be  instances  where  Telford  would  be  demanded  by 
conditions ;  but  in  all  the  experience  of  the  writer  he  can  recall  no 
case  where  the  demands  could  not  have  been  better  met  by  some 
other  form  of  construction,  and  he  is  familiar  with  instances  where 
it  has  been  used  with  unsatisfactory  results. 

It  should  not  be  understood  from  the  foregoing  that  Telford 
invariably  required  the  pavement  now  bearing  his  name  under  the 
surfacing.  As  a  matter  of  fact  he  did  not,  and  in  No.  5  of  his  fam- 
ous "General  Rules  for  Repairing  Roads"  he  says: 

"Where  a  road  has  no  solid  and  dry  foundation,  it  must  be  constructed 
anew.  It  must  be  well  drained,  and  put  into  a  proper  form.  Upon  the  18 
center  feet  of  stones  must  be  put  '(set  by  hand)'  forming  a  layer  of  7  inches 
deep.  Soft  stones  will  answer,  or  cinders,  particularly  where  sand  is  preva- 
lent Where  a  road  has  some  foundation,  but  an  imperfect  one,  or  it  is  hollow 
in  the  middle,  all  the  large  stones  appearing  on  the  surface  of  it  must  'be  raised 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  193 

and  broken;  the  18  center  feet  of  it  must  then  be  covered  with  a  coating  of 
broken  stone,  sufficient  to  give  it  a  proper  shape,  and  to  form  a  bed  of  solid 
materials  of  at  least  13  inches  in  depth. 

"Where  a  road  already  has  a  good  foundation,  and  also  a  good  shape,  no 
materials  should  be*  laid  upon  it,  but  in  their  layers,  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
ruts  and  hollow  places  as  soon  as  they  appear.  Stones  broken  small,  as  above 
described,  being  angular,  will  fasten  together.  In  this  way  a  road,  when  once 
well  made,  may  be  preserved  in  constant  repair  at  a  small  expense." 

However,  the  generally  accepted  distinction  between  the  work 
of  McAdam  and  Telford  is  the  absence  or  presence  of  the  paved 
base,  and  such  roads  as  have  this  base  are  invariably  called  "Tel- 
ford  Roads,"  and  the  base  itself  is  referred  to  as  "Telford,"  just  as 
the  broken  stone  surface  is  called  "Macadam." 

While  Telford,  the  engineer,  is  now  perhaps  best  known  by  the 
pavement  he  advocated,  under  some  circumstances,  as  a  base  for 
the  broken  stone  surface,  his  fame  as  an  engineer  will  remain  long 
after  the  use  of  the  pavement  for  that  purpose  shall  have  been 
everywhere  abandoned,  and  the  sound  common  sense  of  the  man 
Telford,  as  well  as  that  of  his  contemporary,  McAdam,  will  always 
be  honored  by  English  road  makers  as  is  that  of  Tresaguet  by  the 
French. 


194  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


THE  COST  OF  ROAD  BUILDING  AND  METHODS 
OF  REDUCING  THE  COST. 

BY  HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE,  MANAGING  EDITOR  OF  ENGINEERING- 
CONTRACTING,  NEW  YORK. 

There  are  approximately  ten  miles  of  wagon  roads  in  America  to 
each  mile  of  railway.  No  one  knows  exactly  what  it  would  cost  to 
build  the  average  single-track  railway,  and  there  is  very  little  else 
but  single-track  at  present;  but  I  should  put  the  cost  at  not  far 
from  $35,000  per  mile,  exclusive  of  right  of  way  and  station 
grounds,  but  including  buildings  and  equipment. 

What  will  a  good  macadam  road  cost  per  mile?  Obviously  no 
very  definite  answer  can  be  given  to  such  a  question,  without  know- 
ing the  local  conditions,  as  well  as  the  design  of  the  road ;  but  I 
should  say  that  a  fair  average  cost  is  not  far  from  $7,000  for  a 
double-track  macadam  highway.  By  "double-track"  I  mean  a  mac- 
adamized roadway  16  feet  wide,  so  that  two  vehicles  can  readily 
pass  at  any  place. 

The  ratio  of  cost  of  a  single-track  railway  (with  all  its  appurte- 
nances) to  the  cost  of  a  double-track  macadam  road  is,  therefore, 
about  5  to  1.  But,  in  my  opinion,  there  is  no  more  necessity  of 
building  double-track  wagon  roads  throughout  the  country  than 
there  is  of  building  double-track  railways.  If,  therefore,  a  single- 
track  (8  feet  wide)  macadam  road  could  be  built  for  $3,500  a  mile, 
and  it  can  be,  the  ratio  of  cost  of  a  single-track  railway  to  a  single- 
track  road  would  be  10  to  1.  Consequently,  since  the  mileage  ratio 
of  railways  to  roads  is  exactly  reversed,  it  would  cost  no  more  to 
pave  every  road  in  America  than  it  has  already  cost  to  build  all  the 
railways.  In  fact,  it  would  cost  less,  for  the  right  of  way  for  wagon 
roads  has  rarely  to  be  purchased. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  attempt  to  prove  that  it  would  be  in 
the  interest  of  economy  to  pave  every  wagon  road  in  America, 
although  I  firmly  believe  that  America  will  not  be  many  years 
longer  in  reaching  the  present  condition  of  England,  where  one 
may  ride  for  a  month  and  never  see  a  "dirt  road."  But,  to  hasten 
that  desirable  time,  it  is  essential  that  both  the  civil  engineers 
who  design  roads  and  the  taxpayers  who  foot  the  bills  shall  cease 
demanding  double-track  roads,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  traffic 
that  the  road  is  to  carry.  What  we  need  in  America  to-day  is 
length,  not  width,  nor  thickness^,  of  paved  wagon  roads.  I  use  the 
word  "pavement"  to  include  macadam  or  any  other  artificial  floor- 
ing laid  upon  the  earth  to  distribute  the  wheel  loads  over  the  sub- 
soil and  to  keep  the  subsoil  dry. 

A  pavement  may  be  likened  to  a  snowshoe,  because  the  main 
function  of  each  is  to  distribute  a  concentrated  load  over  a  soft 
material  beneath,  so  that  the  concentrated  load  will  not  sink  into 
the  soft  material.  This  is  the  main  function  of  every  pavement, 
and  the  designing  engineer  can  never  produce  an  economic  design 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  195 

of  road  without  clearly  understanding  this  function.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  per  mile  cost  of  macadam,  or  of  any  similar  pavement, 
depends  largely  upon  the  number  of  cubic  yards  of  pavement  per 
mile.  The  length  of  a  mile  is  fixed ;  but  the  other  two  dimensions 
of  a  pavement  are  not  fixed.  The  width  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  traffic  to  be  carried,  or  at  least  it  should.  The  thickness  depends 
upon  the  softness  of  the  subgrade  and  upon  the  skill  of  the  design- 
ing engineer. 

As  I  have  said,  it  ought  to  be  evident  to  any  one  that,  if  the 
traffic  of  the  country  does  not  warrant  double-track  railways,  it 
certainly  does  not  warrant  double-track  wagon  roads,  as  the  stand- 
ard of  general  use.  However,  it  is  hard  for  an  engineer,  and  still 
harder  for  a  farmer,  to  think  of  building  a  paved  roadway  on  which 
two  vehicles  cannot  pass  wherever  they  happen  to  meet.  We  know 
that  there  are  innumerable  unpaved  mountain  roads,  and  many  dirt 
roads  elsewhere  than  in  the  mountains,  where  there  is  but  one 
trackway;  turnouts  being  provided  at  short  intervals.  We  also 
know  that  there  are  many  macadam  roads  paved  only  six  to  eight 
feet  wide,  and  giving  excellent  satisfaction.  Still  the  mania  for 
building  double-track  wagon  roads  persists,  regardless  of  all  eco- 
nomic reason. 

My  conception  of  a  standard  road  is  one  having  a  paved  track- 
way 8  feet  wide,  with  turnouts  50  feet  long  every  400  feet,  the 
paved  width  being  16  feet  at  the  turnouts.  This  is  equivalent  to 
adding  one  foot  of  width  to  the  entire  length  of  the  road,  so  far  as 
cost  is  concerned.  Of  course,  the  entire  road  should  be  properly 
graded  and  crowned  for  a  width  of  at  least  20  or  24  feet  between 
gutters  or  ditches ;  but  the  paved  portion  should  be  only  a  narrow 
strip,  8  feet  wide,  at  the  center,  unless  the  traffic  is  dense  enough  to 
keep  vehicles  waiting  a  very  considerable  percentage  of  their  time 
at  the  turnouts. 

Such  a  design  may  not  appeal  at  first  to  automobilists ;  but  we 
must  remember  that  country  wagon  roads  should  be  designed  pri- 
marily for  business  use,  and  secondarily  for  pleasure.  Moreover,  it 
is  possible  so  to  treat  the  earth  shoulders  or  sides  of  a  paved  road 
as  to  make  them  excellent  roadways  for  pneumatic  tired  vehicles, 
particularly  where  the  vehicle  does  not  fun  constantly  on  the  earth 
shoulder.  Of  this  I  shall  speak  later: 

We  come  next  to  a  consideration  of  methods  of  reducing  the 
thickness  of  the  pavement.  The  old  Roman  roads  were  built  of 
layers  of  stone  often  36  inches  thick.  This  was  magnificently 
Roman,  but  it  was  poor  engineering.  Still  there  are  many  people 
who  cannot  free  themselves  from  the  impression  that  any  structure 
that  has  endured  many  years  must  have  been  well  designed.  There 
is  a  popular  fondness  for  whatever  is  massive.  American  engi- 
neers, however,  have  but  one  criterion  as  to  excellence  of  design, 
and,  briefly  stated,  it  is  this: 

That  structure  is  best  designed  which  performs  its  function  with 
the   minimum  of  cost  for  interest  on   first  cost  plus   the  annual 
expense  of  maintenance. 
M.R.B.— 14 


196  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

When  this  criterion  is  applied,  it  is  evident  that  even  a  macadam 
more  than  6  inches  thick  is  usually  an  uneconomic  construction.  I 
intend  to  show,  briefly,  that  6  inches  of  thickness  is  considerably 
more  than  need  ordinarily  be  given  to  a  pavement. 

A  pavement  is  like  a  snowshoe.  The  softer  the  snow,  the  larger 
the  shoe  should  be  in  order  to  spread  the  load.  The  softer  the  sub- 
soil, the  thicker  the  pavement  must  be,  for  the  same  reason.  It  is 
commonly  said  that  the  unit  pressure  on  the  subsoil,  as  transmitted 
through  a  pavement,  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  thickness 
of  the  pavement.  This  is  a  conservative  estimate ;  for,  several 
years  ago,  I  made  some  tests,  in  collaboration  with  Mr.  Richard  T. 
Dana,  that  proved  that  the  pressure  transmitted  through  a  granular 
mass  varies  inversely  as  the  cube  of  the  thickness  of  the  mass.  An 
illustration  and  description  of  the  pressure  gauge  that  we  used  in 
these  experiments  will  be  found  in  "Engineering-Contracting," 
June  9,  1909. 

If  snow  is  consolidated  even  a  little,  the  size  of  the  snowshoe  can 
be  greatly  reduced.  In  like  manner,  if  the  subsoil  is  consolidated, 
the  thickness  of  the  pavement  can  be  reduced.  The  trouble  in  the 
past  has  been  in  effecting  a  uniform  consolidation  of  the  subsoil 
to  any  considerable  depth  below  the  surface.  The  experiments 
above  referred  to  show  why  it  is  that  even  a  10-ton  steam  roller  is 
so  inefficient  in  compacting  the  earth  subgrade  of  a  road.  If  the 
pressure  transmitted  through  a  granular  mass  decreases  inversely 
as  the  cube  of  the  thickness,  it  is  evident  that  at  a  depth  of  six 
inches  below  the  surface  the  pressure  due  to  the  load  is  less  than 
one  two-hundredth,  or  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  of  what  it  is  at  a 
point  one  inch  below  the  surface,  for  the  cube  of  6  is  216.  This  is 
probably  not  the  exact  ratio  for  such  heavy  loads  as  a  steam  roller, 
but  the  figures  serve  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  what  happens. 

A  few  years  ago  a  method  of  compacting  earth  was  invented  by 
a  California  road  builder,  John  Fitzgerald,  which,  in  my  opinion, 
is  destined  to  do  more  toward  reducing  the  cost  of  roads  and 
streets  than  any  single  invention  since  Blake  made  the  rock 
crusher — another  American  contribution  to  the  science  of  road 
building,  by  the  way. 

Fitzgerald  observed  the  action  of  a  flock  of  sheep  which  passed 
over  a  road  that  he  had  just  plowed  up,  and  he  was  struck  by  the 
wonderful  compacting  effect  of  their  feet  upon  the  plowed  soil. 
After  they  had  gone  by,  he  found  that  an  ordinary  plow  would  not 
penetrate  the  sheep-compacted  soil,  and  he  was  very  angry.  He 
remarked  to  his  partner  that,  if  the  sheep  had  only  been  consider- 
ate enough  to  have  waited  until  he  had  properly  crowned  the  road, 
they  would  have  not  only  saved  him  the  expense  of  rolling  it,  but 
would  have  done  the  job  infinitely  better  than  he  could  do  it  with 
a  roller. 

"Suddenly,"  said  Fitzgerald,  in  telling  me  of  the  incident,  "a 
thought  struck  me.  I  couldn't  afford  to  hire  a  flock  of  sheep  to  do 
my  rolling;  but  why  couldn't  I  invent  a  flock  of  sheep?"  And  he 
did.  He  made  a  roller  with  projecting  "sheep's  feet,"  as  he  called 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  197 

them,  or  tampers,  as  they  are  now  called.  The  tampers  project 
from  the  drum  about  eight  inches,  and  sink  to  the  hilt  in  plowed 
soil,  thus  starting  their  tamping  action  at  the  bottom.  As  the  roll- 
ing tamper  is  pulled  back  and  forth  over  the  earth,  the  tampers 
gradually  ride  higher  and  higher,  until  finally  they  ride  upon  the 
consolidated  mass,  which  is  the  test  of  sufficient  rolling. 

If  there  are  any  lumps  in  the  plowed  earth,  a  spiked  disc  harrow 
is  used  to  pulverize  the  clods  before  the  rolling  tamper  is  used. 
Most  soils  require  sprinkling  with  water  to  secure  the  most  effec- 
tive consolidation.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a  soil  weighing  90  pounds 
to  the  cubic  foot  to  be  thus  tamped  until  it  weighs  120  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  An  even  greater  density  can  be  secured  by  mixing 
gravel  with  a  loamy  soil. 

As  yet,  this  method  of  compacting  subgrades  is  scarcely  known 
outside  of  the  state  where  its  inventor  lives ;  such  is  the  slowness 
with  which  all  improved  methods  of  construction  come  into  gen- 
eral use. 

By  compacting  the  soil  uniformly  to  a  depth  of  about  six  inches, 
it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  thickness  of  the  pavement  to  three 
inches.  This  has  been  done  with  many  asphalt-macadam  pave- 
ments laid  in  California  on  a  tamped  base. 

The  tamping  never  costs  more  than  l1/^  cents  per  square  yard ; 
but,  if  the  soil  is  very  tough  and  breaks  up  in  large  clods,  requiring 
harrowing,  the  cost  of  the  plowing,  harrowing,  and  sprinkling  is 
occasionally  as  high  as  21/2  cents  per  square  yard. 

Let  us  see  what  is  saved  in  cost  of  construction  by  Fitzgerald's 
method  of  tamping  subgrades.  At  the  very  least,  the  pavement 
can  be  reduced  two  inches  in  thickness,  until  it  is  four  inches  thick. 
If  the  soil  is  of  a  character  that  compacts  well,  the  pavement  need 
be  only  three  inches  thick,  which  is  half  the  present  standard  thick- 
ness for  macadam  or  asphalt-macadam. 

Macadam  rarely  costs  less  than  $3.60  per  cubic  yard,  measured 
rolled  in  place,  at  which  rate  each  inch  in  thickness  costs  10  cents 
per  square  yard.  This  makes  the  cost  of  a  six-inch  macadam  60 
cents  per  square  yard.  I  shall  not  go  into  the  details  of  the  cost 
of  macadam  or  of  other  pavements,  for  I  have  given  them  in  my 
books.  Assuming,  for  the  present  purposes,  an  average  cost  of  60 
cents  per  square  yard,  a  six-inch  macadam  pavement  sixteen  feet 
wide  costs  $5,632.  Grading,  drains,  culverts,  engineering,  etc.,  usu- 
ally bring  the  total  cost  up  to  $7,000  per  mile. 

Now,  if  we  cut  the  thickness  in  two,  reducing  it  to  three  inches, 
and  cut  the  width  in  two,  reducing  it  to  eight  feet,  we  have  a  mac- 
adam pavement  one-quarter  the  present  standard  cost  per  mile. 

Such  a  macadam  road  eight  feet  wide,  with  turnouts  every  400 
feet  would  cost  about  $1,600  per  mile,  exclusive  of  grading,  tamp- 
ing the  subgrade,  etc.  If  the  entire  roadway  is  plowed  and  tamped 
for  a  width  of  twenty-seven  feet,  at  the  cost  of  3  cents  per  square 
yard,  we  have  a  cost  of  about  $500  per  mile.  I  am  well  within 
bounds,  therefore,  when  I  say  that  a  macadam  road,  paved  for  a 
single  track,  can  be  built  in  most  localities  for  about  $2,100  per  mile, 


198  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

after  the  grading  has  been  completed.  Grading  varies  widely,  but 
seldom  averages  more  than  3,500  cubic  yards  per  mile,  which  can 
be  done  at  a  cost  ordinarily  ranging  from  20  cents  to  35  cents  per 
cubic  yard. 

If  culverts  and  bridges  are  already  in  existence,  it  is  evident  that 
a  good  single-track  macadam  road  can  be  built  ordinarily  for  about 
$3,000  a  mile,  including  grading,  provided  it  is  built  by  contract, 
and  not  by  day  labor.  What  it  will  cost  by  day  labor  I  should  not 
even  attempt  to  guess.  Usually  the  cost  is  50  per  cent,  to  100  per 
cent,  higher  than  where  the  work  is  done  by  contract.  Telford, 
the  famous  English  road  builder,  has  said  that,  in  the  long  run,  the 
day-labor  method  is  two  to  three  times  as  expensive  as  the  contract 
method  of  road  building. 

I  have  spoken  thus  far  of  macadam  as  the  standard  pavement, 
but  there  are  many  localities  where  the  old-fashioned  macadam 
should  no  longer  be  built.  I  need  not  dwell  upon  the  destruc- 
tive effect  of  rapidly  moving  pneumatic  tires  upon  macadam,  for, 
thanks  to  the  Office  of  Public  Roads,  this  phenomenon  has  been 
carefully  investigated.  Some  sort  of  a  bituminous  binder — asphalt, 
asphaltic  oil,  or  tar — seems  to  be  necessary,  at  least  for  the  top 
wearing  coat,  wherever  macadam  is  subject  to  very  much  auto- 
mobile traffic. 

Nor  shall  I  discuss  the  latest  development  of  asphaltic  oil  roads 
in  California,  where  asphaltic  oil  is  mixed  with  the  soil  and  tamped 
into  a  dense  mass  that  serves  excellently  under  moderate  traffic. 
The  latest  development  of  this  method  of  road  building  consists  in 
covering  the  tamped  base  with  gravel  or  broken  stone,  which  is 
mixed  with  asphaltic  oil  and  also  tamped  down,  producing  a  sort 
of  asphalt-macadam  at  a  cost  often  as  low  as  30  cents  per  square 
yard. 

It  is  evident  to  all  who  read  current  engineering  literature  that 
we  are  in  an  era  of  development  of  road  making  methods  such  as 
has  never  been  seen  before  by  any  one  now  living. 

This  does  not  mean  that  macadam  is  to  be  abandoned  entirely. 
I  am  satisfied  that  macadam  will  remain  the  most  economic  type  of 
road  pavement  in  many  localities,  where  stone  is  cheap,  bitumens 
are  dear,  and  motor  car  traffic  is  light. 

Asphalt  or  tar  macadam,  of  one  sort  or  another,  is  likely  to 
become  a  standard  wearing  coat  where  heavy  motor  car  traffic 
exists ;  but  this  does  not  mean  that  this  wearing  coat  will  be  of 
any  such  thickness  as  has  been  common  with  ordinary  macadam. 

Ordinary  earth,  mixed  with  asphaltic  oil  or  tar,  and  tamped  solid, 
will  be  extensively  used,  not  only  as  a  base  for  an  asphalt  or  tar 
macadam  wearing  coat,  but  for  the  shoulders  on  each  side  of  the 
asphalt  or  tar  macadam ;  and  where  the  traffic  is  moderate,  and 
the  soil  suitable,  no  asphalt  macadam  wearing  coat  will  be  needed, 
at  all. 

Among  other  methods  of  reducing  the  cost  of  road  work,  I  would 
mention  particularly  the  use  of  clam  shell  buckets  for  unloading 
broken  stone  from  cars  into  wagons,  and  the  use  of  wagons  drawn 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  199 

in  trains  by  traction  engines.  Broken  stone  can  be  most  econom- 
ically spread  by  a  small  scraper  pulled  by  two  horses.  After  being 
roughly  spread  in  this  manner,  potato  hooks  or  rakes  should  be 
used  to  complete  the  even  spreading  of  the  surface. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  American  road  making  as  being 
only  an  imitation  of  English  and  French  road  work.  It  may  not  be 
amiss,  therefore,  to  enumerate  a  few  of  the  American  inventions 
that  have  served  to  reduce  the  cost  of  road  construction  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  put  "good  roads"  within  the  reach  of  every  American 
community,  despite  the  fact  that  the  wages  of  American  road  build- 
ers are  from  two  to  three  times  what  they  are  in  England  or 
France. 

To  begin  with,  we  have  the  rock  crusher,  invented  by  Blake. 

Scarcely  of  less  economic  importance  in  macadam  road  work  is 
the  rock  drill,  also  an  American  invention,  the  perfection  of  which 
should  be  credited  to  several  different  men. 

I  do  not  recall  the  name  of  the  inventor  of  the  wheeled  scraper 
for  excavating  and  transporting  earth,  nor  the  "road  machine,"  nor 
of  the  "elevating  grader" ;  but  every  one  of  these  important  earth- 
moving  machines  is  an  American  invention.  So,  too,  is  the  bottom 
dump  wagon,  and  the  small  scraper  for  spreading  broken  stone. 

The  steam  roller  is  a  French  invention,  but  the  rolling  tamper  is 
American. 

The  use  of  asphaltic  oil  for  "oiled  road"  construction  is  a  Cali- 
fornia invention,  dating  as  far  back  as  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards 
to  Lower  California;  for  the  paths  around  many  of  the  old  Span- 
ish missions  were  treated  with  crude  asphaltic  oil. 

America  can,  therefor,  claim  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  a  bitu- 
minous binder  for  roads. 

There  is  certainly  no  lack  of  knowledge  of  how  to  build  roads  at 
low  co'st  in  America,  nor  of  how  to  build  them  well.  With  the 
development  of  the  contract  system  of  road  building,  and  the  pass- 
age of  "state  aid"  laws,  has  come  a  wonderful  impetus  to  road 
building.  But  the  passage  of  these  laws  and  the  abolition  of  the 
old  day-labor  system  of  road  building  are  due  primarily  to  the 
campaign  of  education  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  by  the  various  organiza- 
tions and  engineering  publications  that  have  worked  in  harmony 
for  the  betterment  of  the  rural  highway. 


200  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

SURVEYS  AND  MAPPING. 
BY  GEORGE  C.  DIEHL,  BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

Comprehensive  highway  laws  and  liberal  appropriations  are  es- 
sential to  the  construction  of  properly  developed  systems  of  main 
and  lateral  highways.  Long  discussion  and  carefully  planned  cam- 
paigns of  education  are  usually  necessary  before  such  laws  and  ap- 
propriations are  obtained.  Methods  of  construction  and  various 
engineering  questions  to  a  slight  extent  form  part  of  the  prelimi- 
nary educational  work ;  but  the  problem  of  "Surveys  and  Mapping" 
is  not  presented  until  laws  have  been  enacted  and  funds  appro- 
priated to  make  such  enactments  effective.  In  all  large  accom- 
plishments the  main  idea  and  completed  work  are  of  general  in- 
terest; but  the  details  and  intermediate  steps  which  produce  the  re- 
sult are  not  always  interesting.  The  expense  of  surveys  and  maps 
is  frequently  criticised,  especially  in  localities  where  few  roads 
have  been  constructed,  and  where  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency 
has  not  been  obtained. 

It  is  not  intended  to  present  in  this  brief  paper  any  original  ideas, 
but  rather  to  outline  the  methods  in  vogue  in  states  (especially 
New  York  State,  from  whose  reports  many  of  the  below-mention- 
ed statements  have  been  taken)  where  much  road  work  has  been 
done,  and  to  indicate  the  advantages  and  economy  of  accurate  sur- 
veys, careful  estimates,  and  comprehensive  study  of  the  diverse 
conditions  which  confront  the  road  builder.  It  is  believed  that  the 
various  problems  can  be  best  solved  by  careful,  slow,  painstaking 
consideration,  rather  than  by  quick  decision,  without  surveys  or 
exact  facts,  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

In  surveying  and  mapping,  as  in  all  enterprises,  the  most  satis- 
factory results  can  be  obtained  by  thorough  organization,  fixed  re- 
sponsibility, and  systematized  work.  The  minor  problems  must 
be  solved  by  the  subordinate  officers,  and  the  more  important 
questions  should  be  determined  by  the  higher  paid  and  better 
equipped  officials.  For  instance,  an  assistant  engineer  is  best 
employed  making  decisions  on  minor  matters,  rather  than  in  con- 
jecturing his  probable  course  if  he  were  the  chief  engineer.  It  is 
more  important  that  the  chief  engineer's  time  should  not  be  wasted 
on  lesser  details  than  that  the  assistant  engineer  should  occasion- 
ally iail  on  a  problem  too  difficult.  Fixed  responsibility  quickly 
indicates  ability,  and  permits  the  highest  state  of  efficiency  in  or- 
ganization. The  engineer's  force  will,  in  addition  to  surveying 
and  mapping,  have  charge  of  construction. 

The  smallest  unit  should  be  the  field  party,  and  should  usually 
consist  of  about  six  men,  including  an  assistant  engineer  in  charge, 
a  transit  man,  a  leveler,  a  rod  man,  and  two  chain  or  ax  men. 

Several  field  parties  should  be  in  charge  of  a  resident  engineer, 
with  an  office  suitably  located  to  keep  transportation  charges  at 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  201 

the  minimum.  The  resident  engineer  should  be  assisted  by  a  chief 
clerk,  a  stenographer,  and  a  force  of  draftsmen  proportionate  to 
the  number  of  field  parties  and  the  work  performed  by  them.  If 
the  work  is  of  considerable  magnitude  and  covering  the  area  of  an 
entire  commonwealth,  three  or  four  residencies  should  form  part 
of  a  division  under  control  of  a  division  engineer,  with  suitable 
clerical  and  drafting  force,  dependent  on  the  nature  and  amount 
of  work  in  progress,  and  with  offices  conveniently  located  in  the 
larger  centers  of  population. 

The  state  should  be  divided  into  several  divisions,  and  under 
the  control  of  the  chief  highway  engineer  or  commissioner,  with 
offices  at  the  state  capital.  The  chief  engineer  should  have  a  test- 
ing laboratory,  deputies,  clerks,  draftsmen,  and  stenographers,  to 
keep  in  close  touch  and  perfect  familiarity  with  the  entire  work,  in 
order  that  he  may  render  careful,  yet  quick,  decisions  on  all  vital 
matters,  and  may  outline  wise  and  economical  policies. 

The  chief  highway  engineer  shall,  before  any  surveys  are  under- 
taken, issue  certain  general  rules  and  regulations,  which  must  be 
rigidly  adhered  to,  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  standardized, 
and  no  time  wasted,  in  the  more  important  offices,  in  deciphering 
note  books,  etc.  Field  notes  shall  be  kept  in  uniform  sized  books 
according  to  a  standard  system,  and  shall  be  furnished  from  the 
chief  engineer's  office,  and  on  the  completion  of  work  on  any  road 
the  books  shall  be  immediately  filed  in  the  division  engineer's  office. 
Separate  books  shall  be  used  for  each  road,  and  there  should  be 
indicated  in  each  book  the  name,  location,  and  length  of  the  road, 
the  names  and  duties  of  the  field  party  engaged  in  making  the 
survey,  and  an  explanatory  table  of  all  abbreviations  used.  All  ab- 
breviations must  be  in  accordance  with  standard  forms  issued  by 
the  chief  engineer,  in  order  that  field  books  may  be  equally  in- 
telligible and  easily  read  in  any  office  in  the  state.  Bench  marks, 
azimuths,  culverts,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  shall  be  recorded 
in  tabular  form,  in  addition  to  the  regular  notes.  At  the  beginning 
of  each  day's  notes  the  names  of  the  field  party,  their  duties,  and 
the  date  and  condition  of  weather  should  be  recorded.  Each  field 
party  should  be  equipped  with  a  small  camera,  and  photographs 
taken  of  any  bridge,  culvert,  or  special  work  which  will  require  ex- 
tra study,  consideration,  and  decision  by  the  chief  officials.  The 
films  should  be  listed,  and  pasted  in  note  books  near  the  corre- 
sponding transit  notes. 

All  surveys  should  be  based  on  transit  lines,  which  should  be  in 
or  parallel  with  the  center  line  of  the  highway.  Some  time  can 
be  profitably  expended  in  locating  stone  markers  or  iron  pipe  which 
mark  the  center  of  highways,  as  these  permanent  marks  are  fre- 
quently destroyed  during  road  construction,  to  the  great  incon- 
venience of  property  owners.  All  landmarks  should  be  renewed  or 
maintained.  The  azimuth  of  each  line  should  be  taken,  and  each 
transit  point  or  angle  should  be  marked  with  an  iron  pin  and  ref- 
erenced to  permanent  objects  by  at  least  three  measurements. 
Walls.,  fences,  or  other  structures,  which  indicate  the  boundaries 
of  the  road  or  abutting  property,  should  be  located,  as  well  as 


202  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

buildings  within  100  feet  of  the  road,  or  any  permanent  structures 
which  may  be  affected  by  the  proposed  improvements,  such  as 
changed  grades,  new  ditches,  drains,  etc. 

The  magnetic  bearing  and  location  of  each  transit  course,  prop- 
erty line,  and  intersecting  highway  boundary  line  shall  be  meas- 
ured. All  private  houses,  barns,  or  field  drives  which  lead  from 
the  highway  should  be  located,  and  a  tabulated  list  made,  show- 
ing their  character.  Existing  paved  ditches,  curbing,  catch-basins, 
railroad  tracks,  lines  of  telegraph  and  telephone  poles,  and  shade 
trees  should  be  located,  and  names  of  companies  owning  tracks 
or  poles  should  be  noted.  All  bridges  should  be  located,  and 
sketches  made,  showing  details  of  abutments,  superstructures,  etc. 
Complete  notes,  showing  actual  conditions  of  such  structures, 
bridges,  and  abutments,  should  be  compiled.  All  culverts  should 
be  located,  and  sketches  made,  showing  details,  and  every  one 
should  be  designated  as  "necessary,"  "good,"  or  "bad,"  which  will 
indicate  whether  or  not  the  culvert  shall  remain  or  be  replaced. 
The  assistant  engineer  must  decide  this  question  by  examination 
at  the  time  of  survey,  and  must  also  ascertain  if  waterways  or  cul- 
verts are  of  sufficient  size,  as  indicated  by  observation  of  previous 
high-water  marks,  or  inquiry  of  nearby  residents.  Where  new 
waterways  are  to  be  constructed,  the  assistant  engineer  should  as- 
certain the  area  of  watershed,  and  such  other  information  of  slope, 
surface,  etc.,  necessary  to  compute  the  size  of  opening  required. 
A  tabular  statement  should  be  recorded,  showing  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  and  the  chief  town  highway  official  should  be  required  to 
locate  during  the  previous  spring  all  sink,  holes,  quicksand  pockets, 
and  unstable  portions  of  the  road,  and  mark  the  same  by  driving 
wooden  stakes  at  the  sides  of  the  road  or  by  other  suitable  methods. 
The  assistant  engineer  must  furnish  detailed  report  of  each  portion 
of  the  road  so  indicated,  with  his  recommendations  for  proper 
treatment.  Surveys  are  usually  made  in  dry  weather;  when  soft 
spots  are  not  easily  detected. 

All  quarries,  or  ledges  of  rock  suitable  for  road  materials  and 
masonry  should  be  located.  Samples  of  the  same  shall  be  for- 
warded to  the  testing  laboratory  of  the  chief  engineer,  and  the 
amount  of  rock  estimated.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  field  stone 
and  gravel  occurring  on  the  road  shall  be  likewise  determined.  All 
stone  should  be  carefully  tested  in  the  laboratory,  to  ascertain  its 
hardness,  tenacity,  toughness,  absorption,  and  abrasive  resistance. 
All  exposed  ledges  should  be  examined  to  determine  the  effect  of 
long-continued  weathering. 

Data  regarding  the  various  transportation  facilities  for  carrying 
material,  location  of  nearest  switch,  name  of  railroad,  freight  rate, 
etc.,  should  be  obtained.  The  most  advantageous  locations  for 
stone  crushers  should  be  determined,  and  the  ordinary  wages  of 
laborers  and  teams.  It  might  appear  that  much  of  this  information 
should  be  obtained  by  the  contractor  to  whom  the  work  is  let ;  but 
experience  has  demonstrated  that,  the  more  detailed  the  estimates 
of  the  engineer,  the  closer  the  contractors  will  bid  on  the  work. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  203 

Numerous  instances  can  be  cited  where  the  cost  of  roads  have  ab- 
normally increased  by  the  failure  to  locate  suitable  unworked  quar- 
ries convenient  to  the  road. 

The  leveler  and  rod  man  should  run  accurate  levels,  establish 
and  keep  accurate  record  of  a  series  of  permanent  bench  marks, 
giving  elevation  at  suitable  points,  above  tide  water  or  other  gen- 
eral accepted  datum  plane. 

At  each  100-foot  station,  at  each  change  of  grade,  and  at  cross- 
roads, elevations  should  be  taken  to  the  nearest  V10  foot  on  the 
base  line,  and  such  other  points  at  either  side  as  may  be  needed  to 
plot  an  accurate  profile  and  cross-sections  of  the  road.  Usually 
levels  need  not  be  taken  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  highway,  un- 
less a  considerable  cut  or  embankment  is  to  be  made,  or  the  high- 
way to  be  widened.  Cross-sections  shall  be  taken  where  there  are 
marked  changes  along  the  beaten  path.  Elevations  should  be  tak- 
en at  front  corners  of  all  buildings  which  are  apt  to  be  affected  by 
the  proposed  improvements.  Cross-sections  should 'be  taken  near 
each  culvert,  to  permit  accurate  computations  of  culvert  excavation. 
Profiles  and  locations  of  streams  adjoining  or  crossing  the  high- 
way should  be  obtained,  if  there  is  any  possibility  of  changing  the 
existing  drainage  system. 

To  avoid  confusion,  a  regular  routine  should  be  followed  in  mak- 
ing all  locations  and  taking  levels.  The  rod  man  and  chain  man 
must  keep  separate  notes  of  all  readings  on  bench  marks  and  all 
measurements  to  transit  points. 

Frequently  existing  highways  have  been  laid  out  along  old  farm 
or  lot  lines,  without  reference  to  suitable  grades  or  stable  founda- 
tions. Often  15  per  cent,  or  20  per  cent,  grades  or  poor  founda- 
tions are  encountered,  which  could  have  been  avoided  by  making  a 
slight  detour.  Such  new  locations  can  be  adopted  in  many  cases 
at  a  less  cost  and  with  more  satisfactory  results  than  attempting 
excessive  cuts  or  fills  on  existing  roads,  with  the  heavy  conse- 
quential damage  to  abutting  owners  and  additional  road  metal  and 
drainage  in  soft  spots.  Whenever  a  grade  is  over  5  per  cent.,  and 
the  assistant  engineer  believes  a  new  location  is  desirable,  he 
should  report  the  same  to  the  resident  engineer,  who  should  per- 
sonally take  charge  of  all  surveys.  If  there  are  several  available 
lines,  a  survey  should  be  made  of  each,  by  running  transit  lines 
and  taking  cross-sections  extending  not  less  than  100  feet  each  side 
of  the  transit  line.  Profiles  should  be  plotted  and  contour  maps 
made,  and  a  most  careful  study  made*  including  rough  estimates 
of  cost.  The  character  of  soils  should  be  ascertained  by  borings 
where  cuttings  are  to  be  made.  Swamps,  woodlands,  pastures,  cul- 
tivated lands,  vineyards,  etc.,  should  be  located,  to  ascertain  the 
comparative  cost  of  acquiring  the  new  right  of  way. 

Nearly  every  problem  which  enters  into  railroad  construction 
is  encountered  in  locating  new  right  of  ways  for  highways,  and 
instances  are  frequent  where  thousands  of  dollars  might  have  been 
saved  by  slight  changes  in  alignment,  or  grade,  which  should 
easily  have  been  foreseen  and  provided  for  by  proper  study. 


204  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

The  final  location  must  be  determined  by  the  division  engineer, 
and  in  difficult  cases  by  the  chief  engineer,  and  should  take  into 
consideration  convenience  to  the  traveling  public,  length  of  route, 
the  total  amount  of  rise  and  fall,  subsoil  conditions,  total  cost,  the 
number  of  culverts  and  bridges,  natural  defects  to  be  overcome, 
and  tractive  resistance,  which  depends  on  a  combination  of  length 
and  grade.  Lessening  of  maximum  grades  means  continual  sav- 
ing in  the  transportation  charges  to  every  user  of  the  highway. 

Surveys  for  acquiring  a  new  right  of  way,  either  for  widening 
or  making  new  locations,  should  be  made  by  a  party  especially  de- 
tailed for  that  purpose.  Transit  lines  should  be  made,  carefully 
run  around  each  parcel,  and  the  length  and  bearing  of  all  sides  de- 
termined. Stone  markers  or  iron  plugs  should  be  set  to  define  the 
lines  of  property  taken,  deeds  of  records  of  property  transfers  and 
road  records  should  be  examined,  and  the  entire  survey  connected 
with  the  original  road  survey.  Maps  should  be  prepared  in  the 
offices  of  the  resident  engineer  (which  is  accessible  to  highway) 
in  case  additional  measurements  are  required. 

Plans  shall  first  be  drawn  on  continuous  detail  paper  about  24 
inches  wide  and  to  a  scale  of  50  feet  to  one  inch.  The  transit  lines 
should  be  drawn,  checked,  and  inked  before  details  are  plotted. 
All  details,  owners'  names,  railroads,  notes  relating  to  quarries, 
grade,  water,  etc.,  should  be  neatly  placed  on  map  in  pencil.  Pro- 
files should  be  drawn  on  standard  continuous  profile  paper,  to  a 
horizontal  scale  of  50  feet  to  one  inch  and  a  vertical  scale  of  10 
feet  to  one  inch.  All  profiles  should  be  checked  and  inked  before 
plotting  grade  line,  which  should  be  determined  by  the  resident 
engineer  and  drawn  in  pencil.  Culverts,  bridges,  crossways,  etc., 
should  be  indicated  on  both  plans  and  profiles.  Cross-sections 
should  be  drawn  on  standard  transparent  cross-section  paper  to  a 
scale  of  5  feet  to  one  inch.  The  surface  line  station  numbers,  eleva- 
tion of  center,  abbreviations  for  fences,  trees,  etc.,  should  be  inked. 

The  proposed  grade  lines  should  be  adopted  after  careful  consid- 
eration by  the  resident  engineer.  The  amount  of  excavations 
should  be  sufficient,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  make  the  necessary 
embankments  and  shoulders.  The  old  road  surface,  frequently  the 
result  of  graveling  for  many  years,  should  be  preserved  and  used 
for  a  foundation  as  far  as  practicable.  The  maximum  grade  should 
not  be  greater  than  5  per  cent.,  nor  less  than  %  per  cent.,  unless 
authorized  by  the  chief  engineer.  The  value  of  road  depends  large- 
ly on  a  properly  determined  grade.  Excessive  grade  limits  the 
speed,  weight  of  load,  and  renders  drainage  problems  more  diffi- 
cult. The  grade  as  far  as  it  is  practicable  should  be  adjusted  not 
to  interfere  with  existing  houses,  shade  trees,  driveways,  sidewalks, 
etc.  Changes  on  grades  of  over  2  per  cent,  should  be  eased  with 
vertical  curves,  and  heavier  grades  should  be  in  the  direction  of 
lightest  travel. 

The  proposed  alignment  of  the  road  should  follow  the  center 
line  defined  by  the  road  record,  except  where  sharp  turns  can  be 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  205 

avoided,  which  are  particularly  dangerous  on  roads  much  used  by 
motor  vehicles. 

The  proposed  finished  cross-section  should  be  determined  by 
the  chief  engineer.  Generally  the  roadway  on  main  highways 
should  be  about  30  feet  in  width,  with  16  feet  width  of  road  metal- 
ing. The  crown  on  the  road  metal  should  be  about  %  mcn  to 
the  foot  or  4  inches  for  a  16-foot  width  of  metaling.  The  earth 
wings  should  slope  about  %  inch  to  the  foot,  and  the  slope  to  the 
ditch  should  not  be  steeper  than  3  inches  to  the  foot.  The  entire 
cross-section  should  be  so  proportioned  that  the  traffic  should  be 
spread,  and  not  follow  a  single  track ;  also  that  any  vehicle  could 
be  driven  into  the  ditch  without  danger  of  overturning. 

Before  determining  the  character  of  road  metal,  a  traffic  census 
of  the  road  should  be  taken  by  the  assistant  engineer.  The  num- 
ber of  horse  and  motor  vehicles  should  be  counted,  and  their 
weight  estimated,  at  the  hours  of  heaviest  travel.  The  kind,  thick- 
ness, and  width  of  road  metal  should  be  based  on  the  present  and 
estimated  future  tonnage  per  foot  width  of  road,  the  number  and 
speed  of  motor  vehicles,  and  the  general  soil  and  drainage  condi- 
tions. The  surface  should  be  dry,  solid,  elastic,  dustless,  of  easy 
grade,  and  smooth. 

After  the  proposed  alignment,  grade,  and  cross-section  have  been 
plotted  in  pencil  on  the  plans,  they  should  be  submitted  to  the  di- 
vision engineer  for  his  approval,  and  he  should  fix  a  date  when 
the  county  and  town  officials  could  accompany  the  resident  en- 
gineer and  himself  over  the  road  on  foot  with  the  plans,  and  care- 
fully go  over  on  the  ground  all  the  suggested  improvements,  in 
order  that  the  sound  common  sense  of  the  farmers  along  the  roads, 
the  special  knowledge  of  the  local  officials,  and  the  technical  abil- 
ity of  the  engineers  would  be  combined  in  the  final  and  completed 
plans.  Conclusions  should  be  reached  regarding  the  kind  and  width 
of  road  metaling,  the  location  and  size  of  culverts,  the  changes  in 
grade,  alignment,  and  cross-section,  the  method  of  providing  stable 
foundations  at  sink  holes,  quicksand  pockets,  and  soft  spots,  the 
location  of  underdrains,  and  the  general  scheme  of  drainage,  es- 
pecially where  necessary  to  construct  new  waterways  to  carry  wa- 
ter from  the  lateral  ditches,  the  locations  of  concrete  ditch  cross- 
ings, guard  rails,  road  signs,  and  guide  posts,  and  the  best  methods 
of  construction,  in  order  to  cause  the  least  inconvenience  to  the 
traveling  public. 

After  the  results  of  this  inspection  and  consultation,  the  lines, 
grades,  and  sections  as  finally  determined  should  be  inked,  and  the 
drawing  traced  on  uniform  size  sheets,  preferably  about  24x36 
inches.  Celluloid  tern  plates  cut  to  proper  form  can  be  used  to 
draw  the  proposed  cross-sections  or  plans. 

The  quantities  of  the  various  items  should  then  be  computed. 
The  excavation  and  embankment  can  be  quickly  and  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  determined  by  the  method  of  end  areas,  using  a 
planimeter  to  ascertain  such  areas.  The  plans  should  contain  all 
information  concerning  quarries,  transportation  facilities,  gravel 


206  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

and  sand  banks,  and  in  short  every  fact  that  will  be  of  value  to  any 
contractor  in  computing  the  actual  cost  of  construction. 

Many  contingencies  arise  during  the  survey,  and  it  is  not  in- 
tended in  this  short  space  to  attempt  to  describe  them,  or  to  enter 
into  any  intricate  engineering  problems  relating  to  the  construc- 
tion of  large  span  bridges,  which  are  necessary  on  many  roads, 
nor  to  discuss  the  various  types  of  road  construction,  which  will 
doubtless  be  more  ably  treated  by  the  other  speakers. 

The  methods  outlined  relate  principally  to  main  roads  improved 
with  macadam  or  hard  surface.  Maps  of  town  or  lateral  roads, 
showing  locations  of  bridges  and  culverts,  are  of  great  value  to  the 
local  highway  officials,  who  are  also  much  aided  in  improving  earth 
roads  by  well-directed  surveys  defining  new  alignments  and  better 
grades. 

Highway  engineering  offers  the  largest  field  for  individual  effort 
productive  of  great  benefit  to  the  community.  At  present  many 
engineers  do  not  seek  employment  in  this  branch  of  the  public 
service.  Highway  positions  should  be  made  attractive  by  insuring 
permanency  in  tenure  of  office,  by  increasing  salaries,  and  by  re- 
warding successful  work  with  well-earned  promotion.  The  future 
of  the  Good  Roads  movement  largely  depends  upon  the  ability,  ex- 
perience, and  earnestness  of  the  highway  engineers. 

The  best  results  can  be  obtained  by  a  hearty  co-operation  be- 
tween the  farmer,  the  engineer,  and  the  road  user,  and  the  recog- 
nition by  each  of  the  common  sense,  skill  and  perception  of  the 
others.  Good  laws,  liberal  appropriations,  accurate  surveys,  care- 
fully prepared  plans,  organization,  co-operating  interests,  fair  deal- 
ing, and  integrity  will  produce  this  country's  greatest  need — 
GOOD  ROADS. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  207 

BOULEVARDS. 
BY  SAMUEL  C.  LANCASTER,  SEATTLE,  WASHINGTON. 

The  boulevard  of  to-day,  with  its  combined  effect  of  nature  and 
art,  exhibiting  the  character  and  life  of  a  city,  had  its  origin  in 
the  rampart,  or  fortress,  of  the  walled  towns  and  cities  of  the  Old 
World. 

With  the  city's  growth,  it  became  necessary  to  construct  a  sec- 
ond, and  in  some  cases  even  a  third,  wall,  with  its  accompanying 
moat.  A  new  fortification  having  been  completed,  the  old  wall 
was  leveled,  and  the  moat  rilled,  thus  forming  a  broad  space  en- 
circling the  city.  From  this  has  grown  the  boulevard  of  to-day 
with  its  beautiful  drives,  lined  with  shade  trees,  flowering  shrubs, 
parks,  and  promenades. 

A  striking  example  of  the  splendid  use  which  has  been  made  of 
the  ground  occupied  by  the  old  ramparts  is  found  in  the  city  of 
Brussels  (often  called  "Little  Paris,"  on  account  of  its  magnificent 
system  of  boulevards  and  parks).  The  massive  stone  towers  which 
fortified  the  gateways  to  the  ancient  city  of  Cologne,  each  of  a 
different  type  of  architecture,  were  preserved  when  the  old  wall 
was  demolished,  and  they  have  been  made  to  form  a  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  present  parking  system. 

In  Paris  many  of  the  interior  boulevards  owe  their  origin  to 
the  bulwarks  or  fortifications  which  surrounded  the  city  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  But  since  1852  the  name  has  been  applied  to  num- 
bers of  thoroughfares  which  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
bulwarks. 

Wrhen  victory  crowned  the  great  Napoleon,  ambition  for  his 
capital  knew  no  bounds,  and  he  determined  to  make  of  Paris  the 
most  beautiful  city  in  the  world.  Under  his  orders  triumphal 
arches,  bridges,  quays,  and  public  works  of  great  magnitude  were 
begun.  Louis  Phillippe  resumed  with  new  ardor  the  completion 
of  Napoleon's  modern  Paris,  but  it  remained  for  Napoleon  III  to 
complete  the  transformation  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  hitherto 
unparalleled.  Under  the  direction  of  Haussmann,  plans  were  ma- 
tured and  the  most  beautiful  boulevards  of  the  world  were  con- 
structed. The  inner  and  the  outer  boulevards  encircling  Paris 
have  an  average  width  of  140  feet  throughout  their  20  miles.  In 
a  couple  of  districts,  for  a  distance  of  more  than  4  miles,  there  is' a 
width  of  240  feet,  while  the  Champs  Elysees  from  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde  to  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  has  a  width  of  275  feet. 

Of  the  12  broad  avenues  which  radiate  from  the  triumphal  arch, 
the  Champs  Elysees  and  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  are  perhaps  the 
most  frequented.  Under  the  refreshing  shade  of  the  trees  which 
line  these  avenues,  men  and  women  sit  at  little  tables  eating,  drink- 
ing and  watching  the  life  of  the  way,  with  its  kaleidoscopic  move- 
ment of  men  and  things  which  animate  it  from  morning  till  morn- 
ing comes  again.  Evening  brings  electric  lights  and  brilliant  il- 


208  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

lumination,  suggesting  a  city  of  pleasure,  which  no  one  quits 
without  regret. 

In  nearly  every  European  city  the  water  front  is  permanently 
improved  with  solid  walls  of  masonry,  defining  clearly  the  limits 
of  the  sea  or  river,  to  which  access  is  provided  for  heavy  teaming 
by  a  lower  roadway ;  the  higher  level  being  reserved  for  parks  and 
boulevards. 

It  has  been  shown  that  much  of  the  beauty  found  in  the  Old 
World  cities  is  the  growth  of  centuries,  while  in  our  country  it 
is  scarcely  more  than  50  years  since  the  development  of  parks  and 
boulevards  was  undertaken.  We  have  had  to  begin  at  the  begin- 
ning, yet  in  a  few  years  we  have  accomplished  great  things.  With 
an  awakened  public  interest  and  the  knowledge  that  it  pays,  Amer- 
ica is  now  well  to  the  front.  It  is  an  established  fact  that  the  in- 
fluence of  parks  and  boulevards  increases  the  value  of  real  estate 
and  tends  to  lessen  the  general  tax  of  the  city,  instead  of  increas- 
ing it. 

There  is  scarcely  a  city  which  is  not  maturing  plans,  or  actively 
engaged  in  constructing  parks,  with  a  connecting  system  of  boule- 
vards, or  widening  and  extending  broad  avenues  from  the  business 
and  residential  centers,  so  as  to  form  a  fitting  approach  to  some 
great  park  or  public  building.  As  a  nation  we  are  just  awakening 
to  the  full  appreciation  of  the  great  work  done  by  L,e  Enfant  in 
planning  our  National  Capital,  and  after  nearly  a  hundred  years 
his  ashes  have  been  removed  to  Arlington  Cemetery,  and  a  fitting 
monument  will  mark  his  resting  place.  But  his  own  work  is  a 
greater  monument  than  any  which  we  can  rear. 

When  the  plan  of  the  commission  for  the  improvement  of  the 
Mall  has  been  fully  executed,  our  National  Capital  will  indeed  be 
beautiful,  and  other  American  cities  will  be  stimulated  to  greater 
action. 

The  parkways  or  boulevards  of  a  city,  besides  connecting  parks 
and  affording  easy  means  of  communication,  should  take  advan- 
tage of  beautiful  natural  surroundings,  as  has  been  done  in  River- 
side Drive,  New  York,  where  the  high  bank  of  the  North  River  has 
been  made  to  form  the  crowning  effort  of  the  city's  boulevard  sys- 
tem, surpassing  in  beauty  the  famous  Thames  embankment;  or, 
as  in  the  case  of  Kansas  City,  where  steep  and  rocky  hillsides, 
which  were  before  unsightly,  have  been  made  to  form  the  prin- 
cipal feature  of  interest  by  the  construction  of  parks  and  boule- 
vards which  have  raised  the  standard  of  all  building  operations 
until  the  new  section  presents  a  contrast  to  the  old  town  as  marked 
as  if  built  a  thousand  years  later. 

Charles  Eliot  has  defined  landscape  architecture  as  "being  the 
art  of  arranging  land  and  landscape  for  human  use,  convenience, 
and  enjoyment." 

In  the  construction  of  boulevards  it  is  likewise  important  to  com- 
bine convenience  with  beauty.  In  some  sections  it  would  be  best 
for  them  to  take  a  certain  formal  character,  without  rendering  them 
artificial  to  a  marked  degree. 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  209 

"We  are  coming  to  feel  that  scenery  belongs  to  the  people,  and 
that  it  has  its  value."  We  should  therefore  preserve  the  most 
attractive  natural  features  for  the  constant  use  and  enjoyment  of 
the  many  against  the  selfishness  and  greed  of  a  few. 

To  quote  Morris: 

"Meantime,  there  is  one  duty  obvious  to  us  all:  It  is  that  we  should  set  our- 
selves to  guard  the  natural  beauty  of  the  earth.  We  ought  to  look  upon  it  as 
a  crime,  an  injury  to  our  fellows,  only  excusable  because  of  ignorance,  to  mar 
the  natural  beauty  which  is  the  property  of  all  men." 

Charles  Eliot  helped  the  city  of  Boston  to  appreciate  this  great 
fact,  and  the  Metropolitan  Park  Board  is  giving  to  that  city  the 
most  perfect  system  of  parks  and  boulevards  which  has  yet  been 
devised. 

Chicago  is  reserving  to  the  people  a  great  portion  of  the  Lake 
Front,  and  with  a  chain  of  boulevards  is  connecting  the  Northwest 
and  the  South  Side  Parking  Systems. 

St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  form  a  striking  example  of  what  has 
been  accomplished  in  the  Middle  West;  for  together  these  twin 
cities  have  created  a  magnificent  system.  Their  boulevards  and 
public  drives,  34  miles  in  extent,  link  together  a  splendid  array  of 
lakes,  waterfalls,  and  rivers,  among  which  are  beautiful  Minne- 
tonka,  the  great  gorge  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  falls  of 
Minnehaha. 

With  the  growth  and  development  of  boulevards  in  this  and 
other  countries  has  come  a  demand  for  a  perfect  road  surface,  one 
which  shall  be  smooth,  clean,  and  durable. 

Many  different  materials  have  been  used,  wood  block,  asphalt, 
bitulithic,  macadam,  gravel,  etc.,  according  to  the  boulevard's 
importance  and  the  traffic  to  be  sustained. 

Space  will  not  permit  further  mention  of  other  work  of  great 
magnitude  in  progress  in  other  cities. 

In  closing,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  natural  beauty  of 
Seattle's  situation.  Looking  to  the  east,  across  Lake  Washington, 
we  see  the  great  range  of  Cascade  Mountains,  the  white  caps  of  Mt. 
Baker  and  Rainier  reaching  into  the  heavens ;  to  the  west,  across 
Puget  Sound,  the  irregular,  snow-covered  peaks  of  the  Olympics. 

In  the  midst  of  the  city  are  other  beautiful  lakes  of  fresh  water, 
and  numerous  hills  afford  viewpoints  which  can  not  be  excelled. 
Wherever  possible,  Seattle's  Park  Board  is  seeking  to  control  these 
situations,  and  is  acquiring  the  steep  slopes  and  deep  ravines, 
clothed  with  the  rich  natural  growth,  for  parkway  purposes.  A 
comprehensive  plan  has  been  adopted,  and  a  system  of  boulevards 
34  miles  in  extent  will  soon  encircle  the  city,  connecting  all  the 
principal  parks. 


210  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

HIGHWAYS  AND  CIVILIZATION. 
BY  HOWARD  H.  GROSS,  ILLINOIS. 

The  function  of  the  highway  in  the  progress  of  civilization  is 
fundamental  and  far-reaching.  The  more  one  studies  the  question, 
the  more  he  becomes  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  saying  of 
Charles  Sumner,  Massachusetts'  great  Senator,  who  forty  years 
ago  gave  utterance  in  a  public  address  to  his  belief  that  "the  two 
most  potent  factors  in  the  advancement  of  civilization  are  the 
schoolmaster  and  good  roads." 

It  has  been  the  observation  of  travelers  throughout  the  world 
that,  with  the  single  exception  of  America,  the  condition  of  the 
highways  was  a  fairly  good  index  of  the  social,  moral,  and  intellec- 
tual standard  of  the  people  of  any  country.  France,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  and  Italy  lead  the  world  in  art,  literature,  and 
science,  and  here  are  to  be  found  roads  highly  improved  and  main- 
tained in  the  best  possible  condition. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  reason  the  roads  are  bad  in  our 
own  country  is  that  we  are  so  new  and  have  such  an  enormous  area 
that  the  building  of  good  roads  is  a  well-nigh  impossible  task.  We 
will  see  later  that  it  is  a  problem  that  may  be  easily  solved,  and, 
instead  of  putting  a  burden  upon  the  people  to  do  it,  will  relieve 
them  of  a  burden  many  times  greater  than  that  they  now  bear  without 
realizing  it.  The  reason  stated  above  for  bad  roads  here  is  not 
sufficient.  Australia  has  splendid  roads  and  a  large  area.  In  New 
Zealand  the  roads  are  good.  Both  these  countries  are  much  young- 
er than  we  are.  We  must  seek  another  reason. 

In  passing,  it  may  be  interesting  to  advert  to  the  fact  that  the 
present  conditions  have  grown  out  of  certain  misconceptions  that 
very  largely  obtained  when  the  republic  was  young,  and  which 
did  not  change  when  the  conditions  that  were  responsible  for  them 
had  entirely  disappeared.  In  colonial  days  the  people  settled  in 
the  valleys,  along  the  .river  banks.  They  lived  in  a  primitive  way, 
and  all  were  producers  and  consumers  as  well.  What  they  wore, 
they  made ;  what  they  ate,  they  raised ;  and  business  was  prin- 
cipally a  matter  of  barter  and  exchange  between  neighbors  of  such 
surplus  articles  as  they  did  not  require.  One  settlement  had  very 
little  to  do  with,  and  no  great  interest  in,  another  settlement  over 
the  hills  in  the  next  valley.  Each  community  was  sufficient  unto 
itself,  or  nearly  so.  The  country  was  dotted  with  these  settle- 
ments for  several  hundred  miles  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  was 
the  day  of  the  home-spun.  The  spinning  wheel  and  hand  loom 
were  everywhere  in  evidence.  How  naturally,  then,  under  these 
conditions,  with  the  strong  home  rule  sentiment  that  burned  with 
increasing  brightness  among  them,  that  these  people  should  re- 
gard the  highways  as  entirely  a  local  matter.  What  business  was 
it  to  the  people  in  one  community  whether  the  roads  in  any  other 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  211 

community  were  good  or  bad?  The  people  of  each  individual  com- 
munity assumed  the  absolute  right  of  control  of  the  highways. 

A  century  or  more  has  passed.  To-day  it  is  very  different.  The 
advent  of  the  railways,  spanning  the  continent  from  sea  to  sea 
and  from  the  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  with  bands  of  steel,  the  introduction 
of  the  factory  system,  wherein  machine-made  goods  drove  out 
the  home-made,  and  sent  the  spinning  wheel  and  hand  loom  to  the 
attic  as  reminders  of  a  period  that  had  forever  gone,  when  great 
cities  dot  the  map  with  millions  of  hungry  mouths  to  feed,  we  have 
a  new  and  different  problem.  Farming,  then  primitive,  is  now  done 
by  wholesale.  With  modern  machinery,  the  cultivator  of  the  soil 
produces  five,  ten,  or  a  hundred  times  more  than  he  needs,  and 
this  surplus  must  be  sent  to  the  toiling  millions  in  the  towns  and 
cities  for  their  sustenance.  In  fact,  the  food  products  of  the  world 
must  pass  in  the  farm  wagon  over  the  public  highways.  Farm 
produce,  instead  of  being  consumed  within  a  few  miles  of  where  it 
was  produced,  as  under  former  conditions,  now  starts  upon  a 
journey  that  may  be  50  or  may  be  5,000  miles  before  it  is  ended. 

Thus  the  function  of  the  highway  has  completely  changed,  andr 
instead  of  being  a  matter  of  local  significance  alone,  it  is  of  con- 
tinental, and  in  fact  international,  meaning.  Poor  roads  increase 
the  cost  of  delivery,  and  make  the  same  erratic,  uncertain,  and  in- 
termittent. The  delivery  depends  in  a  large  degree  upon  road  con- 
ditions, and  these  are  such  that  sometimes  for  weeks  at  a  time  not 
a  wheel  can  be  turned.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  store  large 
quantities  in  the  cities,  in  order  to  supply  the  demand  for  consump- 
tion, and  increases  the  cost  by  a  heavy  storage  charge.  Surely 
anything  that  so  vitally  affects  the  necessities  of  all  mankind,  and 
which  is  with  us  so  persistently,  as  bad  roads,  is  a  matter  of  gen- 
eral, and  not  of  local,  concern.  Hence  the  new  conception  that 
both  the  state  and  the  nation  has  and  should  recognize  an  inter- 
est in  the-  highways,  and  be  charged  with  some  responsibility 
for  their  care  and  maintenance.  The  highways  are  the  veins  of 
commerce,  as  the  railways  and  steamship  lines  are  the  arteries. 
They  play  their  part  in  bringing  to  the  modern  home  its  necessi- 
ties and  luxuries.  At  the  writer's  own  table  he  has  at  various  sea- 
sons of  the  year  oranges  from  California,  apples  from  Washington, 
cantaloupe  from  Colorado,  cranberries  from  Wisconsin,  water- 
melons from  Georgia,  pineapples  from  Florida,  bananas  from  the 
Antilles,  etc.,  down  the  line.  When  we  think  of  this,  we  realize 
how  our  comfort  and  happiness  is  involved  in  the  question  of  trans- 
portation. 

In  the  misconception,  as  above  stated,  that  the  roads  are  purely 
a  local  matter,  may  be  found  the  principal  reason  for  the  lack  of 
improvement  upon  American  highways.  The  new  conception, 
which  in  its  best  expression  is  State  Aid,  with  National  Aid  com- 
ing, will  be  found  the  solution  of  this  great  problem,  the  greatest 
economic  and  social  problem  that  confronts  the  people  to-day.  We 
believe  that  America,  a  land  where  so  many  laurels  have  been  won 
in  every  field  of  human  endeavor,  will  speedily  grapple  with  and 
M.R.B.— 15 


212  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

solve  the  road  question  to  meet  twentieth  century  conditions.  A 
better  day  is  dawning.  In  every  state  in  the  Union  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  earnest  and  unselfish  men  and  women  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel of  Good  Roads,  and  wrhat  a  text  they  have !  In  this  great  work, 
eminent,  if  not  pre-eminent,  is  the  state  of  Washington.  Here  in 
one  of  the  youngest  members  in  the  sisterhood  of  states,  in  an  em- 
pire of  boundless  possibilities,  a  land  of  brilliant  achievement  and 
of  mighty  endeavor,  this  great  movement  is  going  forward  by  leaps 
and  bounds.  It  needs  no  prophet  to  predict  that  America's  great- 
est and  best  in  social  and  industrial  life  will  find  its  highest  expres- 
sion "where  rolls  the  Oregon." 

But  we  must  come  to  our  text — the  highways  and  civilization. 
How  intimately  are  they  linked !  How  much  the  condition  of  the 
former  has  the  influence  to  augment  or  restrict  the  progress  of  the 
latter! 

The  recent  Country  Life  Commission,  appointed  by  our  late 
great  President,  found  the  paramount  need  of  the  rural  folk  was  for 
better  schools  and  good  roads.  It  might  better  be  said  good  roads 
and  better  schools,  for  with  good  roads  the  better  schools  are  sure 
to  follow.  The  school  teacher  has  done  a  splendid  work,  but  how 
vastly  greater  would  it  have  been  if  he  had  had  the  influence  of 
splendidly  kept  highways.  With  these  consolidated  township 
schools  are  easily  possible,  and  that  means  the  country  boy  or  girl 
will  be  able  to  get  a  high  school  education  while  living  upon  the 
farm.  The  township  school  will  be  the  social  center,  and  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  community  life  will  be  one  hundred  fold  more 
potent  than  the  "little  red  school  houses,"  of  blessed  memory  and 
little  usefulness,  that  dot  the  landscape  o'er. 

Bad  roads  have  driven  tens  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the 
best  blood  and  brawn  from  the  farms  to  the  nearby  towns  and 
more  distant  cities.  The  country  lad,  with  a  strong,  vigorous  body 
and  active  brain,  is  not  content  to  be  mud-bound  upon  the  farm  for 
days  and  weeks  at  a  time.  He  is  awake  to  the  possibilities  that  lie 
within  him.  He  is  restless  and  pulsates  with  energy.  He  dreams 
and  longs  for  the  intenser  life  of  the  city.  He  feels  an  almost  ir- 
resistible desire  to  get  closer  to  the  nerve  center  of  things.  The 
great  outside  world  is  calling  to  him,  and  his  nature  answers  the 
call. 

One  of  the  paramount  needs  of  our  great  country  is  to  bring  the 
city  and  country  folk  together  on  social,  educational,  as  well  as 
business,  lines.  Give  youth  of  the  country  at  home  and  in  the 
nearby  town  the  social  life  his  nature  demands,  and  he  will  be 
happy,  contented,  and  willing  to  take  up  the  farm  work  when  his 
father,  by  reason  of  age,  must  lay  it  down.  Good  roads  will  do 
more  than  anything  else  to  establish  this  condition,  by  making  com- 
munication easy  between  farm  and  farm,  and  farm  and  town.  What 
is  more  pleasurable  than  a  drive  behind  a  good  team  over  a  splen- 
did country  road,  or  in  the  modern  automobile?  Is  there  any- 
thing more  disheartening  to  the  farmer  than  to  look  out  upon  a  sea 
of  mud  where  the  public  highway  should  be,  with  the  town  five 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  213 

miles  distant,  and  be  obliged  to  make  the  trip  on  horseback  or  on 
foot  because  of  bottomless  roads? 

The  country  needs,  demands,  and  must  have  improved  high- 
ways, rural  delivery,  the  telephone,  and  consolidated  schools.  With 
these  will  come  brighter  days  upon  the  farm,  higher  and  better 
developed  social  life,  and  better  living.  Distance  is  no  longer 
measured  by  the  yard  stick,  but  by  the  clock's  tick.  Good  roads 
make  long  miles  short.  The  influence  of  good  roads  upon  farm 
life  is  to  dignify  it.  They  make  country  life  better  worth  living; 
they  broaden,  educate,  and  uplift  this  most  important  branch  of  the 
commonwealth;  they  bring  the  advantages  of  the  church  and  the 
lecture  platform  to  the  resident  of  the  country  districts ;  they  re- 
lieve him  of  isolation  and  drudgery.  Up-to-date  roads  make  up- 
to-date  citizens.  With  good  roads  he  will  come  in  contact  with 
other  men,  and  take  a  larger  and  higher  view  of  life ;  he  will  be- 
come more  useful  to  himself  and  more  valuable  to  the  community. 
His  interests  will  go  beyond  the  division  fence  that  separates  him 
from  his  neighbor.  He  will  read  more  and  become  better  in- 
formed. His  wife  and  daughters  will  have  an  opportunity  to  mix 
in  town  society,  to  the  benefit  of  themselves,  and  equally  to  the 
benefit  of  their  town-bred  sisters.  This  intercourse  will  speedily 
remove  the  apparent  distinction  between  them ;  they  will  become 
better  acquainted,  and  each  will  find  to  her  surprise  that  the  other 
has  been  misunderstood.  Jealousies  will  be  supplanted  with 
friendships,  and  the  charm  and  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  town 
and  country  girl  will  be  merged  and  blended  in  a  composite  prod- 
uct that  will  be  better  for  the  blending. 

Man  is  a  social  being.  Sociability  is  broadening  and  should  be 
cultivated.  The  city  and  country  have  unfortunately  only  a  bow- 
ing acquaintance.  Lack  of  social  intercourse,  which  leaves  room 
for  the  growth  of  prejudice  and  jealousy,  is  largely  responsible  for 
this  unwholesome  and  cramped  condition.  Bad  roads  are  respon- 
sible principally  for  the  slight  acquaintance  that  is  maintained  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  country,  and  for  the  absence  of  the  socia- 
bility that  would  naturally  follow  a  closer  acquaintance. 

There  is  something  radically  wrong  with  the  man  or  woman, 
who,  knowing  it  well,  does  not  love  the  country.  He  who  has  only 
had  occasional  glimpses  of  it  through  the  window  of  a  parlor  car, 
as  he  is  whirled  away  on  his  summer  vacation,  does  not  know 
farm  life ;  he  has  never  drunk  the  pure,  sweet  breath  of  God— never 
felt  the  throbbing  of  Nature's  great  warm  heart.  A  passing 
glimpse  of  the  wonderful  gardens — the  great  farms  of  our  country 
— is  not  to  know  them ;  but  to  know  them  well  is  to  love  them. 
With  easy  access  from  town  to  country,  farm  life  will  be  better 
known,  better  appreciated,  and  the  sturdy,  wholesome  qualities  of 
the  country  folk  will  blend  with  those  of  the  city  neighbors,  to  the 
betterment  of  both. 

With  bad  roads  as  a  barrier  to  free  and  easy  intercourse  between 
the  city  and  the  farm,  the  young  mind  is  warped  by  wrong  impres- 
sions, and  the  soul  narrowed  by  prejudice,  and  sound  symmetrical 


214  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

education  and  development  are  thereby  hindered,  if  not  rendered 
impossible. 

It  must  be  admitted  that,  from  end  to  end  of  our  beautiful  pro- 
gressive country,  the  greatest  drawback  to  thorough  education, 
the  greatest  drag  on  spiritual,  mental,  and  moral  development,  is 
the  hindrance  to  free  social  intercourse  between  town  and  country 
by  bad  and  at  times  impassable  roads.  Every  farmer  knows  that 
there  is  nothing  more  destructive  to  tranquility  of  mind,  nothing 
that  more  effectually  banishes  smiles,  nothing  more  conducive  to 
gray  hairs  and  wrinkles,  than  to  sit  upon  a  loaded  wagon  and  see 
a  splendid  team  struggling  through  mud  and  ruts,  while  the  wagon 
tongue  swings  viciously  from  side  to  side. 

A  striking  result  of  the  building  of  roads  is  the  effect  upon  the 
pride  of  the  people.  The  tumble-down  fence  in  front  of  the  farm 
house  is  replaced  by  an  attractive  picket  or  woven-wire  type ;  the 
house  is  painted;  a  new  barn  is  built;  trees  and  flowers  appear. 
The  people  wake  up  to  the  fact  that  life  is  better  worth  living, 
and  that,  notwithstanding  the  amount  of  labor  the  conduct  of  the 
farm  requires,  modern  machinery,  with  good  transportation,  re- 
duces it  to  a  minimum. 

If  one  will  carefully  investigate  the  burdens,  the  handicaps,  the 
hardships  and  drawbacks,  due  to  bad  roads,  and  the  money  loss 
to  the  farmer  because  of  his  inability  to  take  advantage  of  good 
prices  in  the  markets,  the  loss  to  the  city  dweller  because  of  short- 
age of  supplies  and  increased  cost  of  transportation  over  poor 
roads,  he  will  be  appalled  at  the  figures.  He  will  find  that  a  small 
part  of  the  economies  brought  about  by  roads  good  every  day  in 
the  year  would  build  and  maintain  them ;  that  in  fact  he  will  be 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  building  of  good  roads  is  not  an 
expense,  but  an  investment  that  will  yield  a  larger  and  surer  re- 
turn than  any  other  to  be  found.  Take  the  great  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley.  Here  under  the  State  Aid  plan  good  roads  could  be  built 
upon  all  the  main  highways  in  the  short  period  of  ten  years  at  an 
average  cost  to  the  farmer  of  ten  cents  per  acre  per  year.  Experi- 
ence everywhere  demonstrates  that  such  roads  will  add  to  the 
value  of  the  farms  served  by  them  at  least  five  times  the  tax  upon 
the  farms  to  build  them.  Good  roads  are  an  asset  to  the  town,  the 
state,  and  the  nation. 

Because  of  bad  roads  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley,  there 
is  a  large  drift  of  the  owners  of  the  farms  to  nearby  towns,  and  the 
farm  drifts  into  the  hands  of  a  tenant.  This  means  that  the  farm 
certainly  will  run  down.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  will  not  be  main- 
tained. The  landlord  squeezes  the  tenant,  and  the  tenant  squeezes 
the  farm.  We  are  fast  establishing  the  conditions  that  for  three 
hundred  years  have  been  the  curse  of  Ireland.  The  question  of 
keeping  the  owner  upon  the  land,  who  will  take  an  interest  in  it 
and  build  it  up,  instead  of  wearing  it  out,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant problems  that  the  American  people  must  confront.  For 
this  reason  farm  life  must  be  made  more  attractive,  and  what  will 
conduce  to  this  end  is  first  class  highways.  It  is  a  fact  that  as  an 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  215 

economic  and  sociological  question  Good  Roads  transcends  every 
other  consideration.  Its  influence  and  beneficence  will  in  years 
to  come  permeate  the  entire  fabric  of  civilization,  uplifting1,  broad- 
ening, and  ennobling  the  present  and  succeeding  generations.  As 
the  Mound  Builders  were  the  highest  expression  of  prehistoric 
man,  so  the  Road  Builder  becomes  the  highest  and  best  product  of 
modern  civilization.  If  cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness,  then  good 
roads  are  a  means  of  grace. 


216  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 


THE  USE  OF  BINDING  MATERIAL  IN  BROKEN  STONE 

ROADS. 

BY  WILLIAM  CAMPBELL,  TORONTO. 

The  stability  of  a  road  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  bond — 
that  is,  upon  the  filler  or  bonding  material  between  the  stones — 
and,  a  necessary  sequel,  consolidation  by  rolling.  In  discussing 
this  detail  of  road  building,  it  must  be  understood  that  other  mat- 
ters have  been  given  due  consideration,  for  a  good  road  must 
have  certain  essential  features : 

(a)  The  earth  subsoil  must  be  well  drained,  naturally  or  artifi- 
cially, so  as  to  make  a  strong,  unyielding  foundation.     The  reason 
that  common  earth  trails  are  good  in  summer  is  that  they  are  dry. 
Kept  dry  by  drainage  during  the  wet  seasons  of  the  year,  they  are 
acted  upon  to  the  least  possible  degree  of  frost,  and,  so  far  as  the 
foundation  is  concerned,  will  attain  their  maximum  of  efficiency. 
This  is  a  matter  of  tile  under-drainage. 

(b)  Ordinary  surface  drainage  must  be  provided  by  giving  the 
road  a  proper  camber,   and  by  providing  side  gutters  or  drains, 
leading,   with   a   constant   fall,   to   free   outlets.     Surface   drainage 
will  do  much  for  a  road,  but  it  will  not  do  everything,  and,  unless 
the  ground  water  is  kept  at  a  low  point,  as  defined  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,   surface   drainage   will   not   prevent   the   road   breaking 
up  under  heavy  traffic  during  wet  seasons  of  the  year. 

(c)  The   wearing  surface   should   be   a   smooth,   hard,   compact 
crust,  wrhich  sheds  water  readily,  and  distributes  the  concentrated 
wheel  load  over  a  greater  area  of  subsoil.     The  use  of  a  bonding 
material  is  a  detail,  though  an  important  one,  in  the  forming,  of 
this  surface  crust. 

As  a  further  practical  summary  of  what  is  necessary  in  the  form- 
ing of  a  road,  we  may  say  that  the  surface  material  of  metal  should 
be  solidified  into  a  compact  and  distinct  crust,  free  from  earth,  sand, 
and  other  weak  materials.  The  road  should  be  well  turnpiked,  and 
given  a  camber,  so  as  to  shed  water  to  the  open  drains.  As  a  rule, 
roads  when  first  built  should  have  a  camber  that  is  too  high ;  oth- 
erwise, they  will  soon  become,  through  settlement,  too  flat.  Ruts 
must  not  be  allowed  to  form,  as  they  prevent  water  flowing  to  the 
open  drains.  The  open  drains  must  have  a  sufficient  fall  and  free 
outlets,  that  water  will  run  off  immediately — not  soak  away.  Tile 
underdrains  should  be  laid  so  as  to  lower  the  water  line.  This  is 
effective  in  all  classes  of  soil.  Even  in  light  sand,  the  roads  are  not 
cut  up  so  much  in  wet  weather.  They  remain  compact,  and  there 
is  less  dust  in  a  period  of  drought. 

Given  these  conditions,  the  best  material  to  use  as  a  binder  is  an 
important  detail  for  consideration.  A  binding  material  serves  sev- 
eral purposes.  It  unites  the  stones  together,  so  that  they  form  a 
solid  crust,  such  as  will  distribute  the  weight  of  wheel  loads  and 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING  217 

thereby  prevents  rutting.  The  binder  fills  the  voids  between  the 
stones,  and  seals  the  surface  against  the  entrance  of  rain  and  melt- 
ing snow,  so  that  the  soil  immediately  below  the  stone  is  not  soft- 
ened by  moisture.  The  binding  material  aids,  consolidation  under 
a  roller,  a  feature  which  is  at  times  given  too  much  consideration 
by  road  builders,  with  the  result  that  inferior  forms  of  binder  are 
used.  The  binder  used  is  closely  associated  with  the  dust  prob- 
lem, a  matter  of  great  importance  upon  roads  subjected  to  constant 
automobile  traffic. 

A  binder  should  be  effective  under  all  weather  conditions  of  wet, 
drought,  frost,  slush,  etc.  The  best  type  of  binding  material  will 
cement  the  stone  strongly  together,  will  fill  the  voids  between  the 
stone  perfectly,  and  will  tend  to  a  minimum  of  dust.  In  loose 
stones,  the  voids  are  about  48  per  cent. ;  in  dry  rolled  stone,  the 
voids  are  reduced  to  about  40  per  cent. ;  in  wet  rolled  stone,  to 
about  33  per  cent.  Under  ideal  conditions,  which,  of  course,  can- 
not be  attained,  the  perfect  binder  should  just  fill  the  voids  of  wet 
rolled  stone.  More  than  this  weakens  the  crust ;  less  than  this 
makes  the  road  less  waterproof.  A  good  binder  will  cement  and 
re-cement  under  pressure  of  traffic,  when  the  bond  has  been  broken. 

For  a  broken  stone  road,  the  standard  material  is  stone  screen- 
ings, consisting  of  the  dust  and  chips  produced  by  crushing.  These 
are  commonly  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  broken  stone  road  to 
give  a  smoother  surface  and  to  aid  in  packing.  The  screenings 
should  be  well  washed  down  into  the  coarser  stone  by  a  sprinkling 
cart  preceding  a  heavy  roller.  To  harrow  the  screenings  into  the 
interstices  of  loose  stone  is  also  an  effective  means  of  filling  the 
voids.  To  harrow  the  screenings  into  the  stone,  flush  thoroughly 
by  a  sprinkling  cart  or  hose ;  and  then  to  solidify  with  a  heavy 
roller  is  the  recognized  process  of  constructing  standard  Canadian 
roads.  This  process  will  bind  the  material  firmly;  the  stones  ob- 
taining a  strong,  mechanical  clasp  between  themselves,  the  screen- 
ings acting  largely  as  a  cementing  material  to  unite  the  stones  into 
a  waterproof  covering. 

Clay  is  occasionally  referred  to  as  a  binding  material,  but  is 
a  material  to  which  we  strongly  object.  It  absorbs  water  with 
avidity,  is  soft  and  yielding  when  wet,  and  its  smooth,  almost 
greasy,  character  when  in  this  condition,  renders  it  a  poor  binder 
in  wet  weather.  In  dry  weather  the  clay  shrinks  remarkably,  and 
permits  the  stones  to  loosen,  so  that  the  road  surface  unravels. 
Breaking  up  in  such  a  condition  it  is  extremely  dusty.  Clay  is  thus 
not  an  effective  bond  in  either  dry  or  wet  weather.  It  gives  a  tem- 
porary advantage  when  rolling.  A  coat  or  mixture  of  clay  will 
hasten  consolidation  under  a  roller,  but  the  advantage  gained  is 
at  the  cost  of  durability  and  service.  It  is  an  injury  to  the  road. 
Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves.  It  is  a  device  unworthy  of  the 
serious  builder. 

Sand  is  by  no  means  as  useful  a  bonding  material  as  stone  screen- 
ings. The  sand  has  not  the  cementing  property  that  the  screen- 
ings possess.  Sand  will  aid  the  road  to  pack  quickly  when  rolling, 


218  MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

but  in  wet  weather  the  weakness  of  the  bond  becomes  apparent. 
Sand  tends  to  hold  the  stones  apart,  rather  than  to  unite  strongly 
together. 

Gravel  is  largely  used  for  roads  of  light  traffic  in  parts  of  Can- 
ada, and  that  which  packs  quickly  is  very  often  imagined  by  road 
makers  to  be  superior  to  gravel,  which  is  cleaner,  but  which  packs 
more  slowly.  This  is  always  found  a  mistake,  as  gravel  that  packs 
quickly,  as  a  rule,  contains  an  excess  of  earth  and  sand;  whereas, 
it  is  the  stony  material  that  is  required  on  the  road.  Screened  grav- 
el is  a  more  durable  material.  A  much  more  satisfactory  roadbed 
is  produced  if  stone  screenings  are  obtained  from  a  quarry,  by  rail 
or  otherwise,  to  bond  the  material. 

The  use  of  coal  tar  and  asphaltic  oils  is  a  practice  which  has  con- 
siderably extended  of  recent  years,  but  is  not  one  which  has  been 
generally  applied  to  country  road  construction  in  Canada.  Mac- 
adam roads,  built  with  crude  tar,  of  the  usual  tarmacadam  type, 
have  not  as  a  rule  proven  a  success.  The  use  of  refined  tars,  in 
which  the  volatile  constituents  are  removed  by  distillation,  is  still 
in  a  stage  which  has  not  been  fully  tested  by  experience.  Oils 
have  been  used  merely  to  lay  dust  in  a  few  cases,  and  not  with  uni- 
form success. 

Present  standard  Canadian  practice  still  adheres  to  what  is 
sometimes  termed  "water-bound"  roads;  that  is,  the  use  of  stone 
screenings  well  flushed  into  the  interstices  of  the  loose  stone,  fol- 
lowed by  consolidation  under  a  heavy  steam  roller.  The  relative 
values  of  different  rocks  for  road  making  depend  largely  upon  the 
cementing  properties  of  the  dust — that  produced  in  crushing,  and 
that  ground  up  by  traffic  on  the  roads.  Limestone  is  largely  used, 
and  a  softer  stone  with  good  cementing  properties  is  sometimes 
found  more  durable  and  effective  than  a  harder  stone,  which  lacks 
the  power  to  cement  and  re-cement  -under  traffic. 

This  is  one  detail  in  road  building,  in  which  future  discovery 
may  produce  important  results.  A  binding  material  more  effective 
than  stone  screenings  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  A  material  that  is 
durable,  tough,  elastic,  dustless,  that  seals  the  surface  of  the  road 
perfectly,  that  is  unaffected  by  weather  conditions,  that  combines 
all  these  qualities,  and  is  cheap,  is  the  one  greatly  to  be  desired  ad- 
dition to  the  materials  of  roadmaking. 


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